序1

这本书是我近四十年前开始写的，因为事务冗忙，时作时辍。原来计划，除现在的五章外，还有三章是有关中国与外国佛教关系史的，因佛教协会已有这方面资料的编辑和著作，所以不重复了。

我写成第一章后，曾以楞严经“如人饮水，冷暖自知”这句话用“饮水”的笔名陆续在《现代佛学》杂志上发表。有一位朋友问我：“你为什么用这样一个小题目？”我说：“我喜欢‘小题大做’,而不愿‘大题小做’，更害怕‘有题空做’。”这本书名很合我的心意。

几年前，一位青年僧人用日文翻译这本书，我应他的要求写序时，曾记下与本书有关的一件事：1957年我陪一位柬埔寨僧人见毛泽东主席，客人未到之前，我先到了，毛主席便和我漫谈。他问：“佛教有这么一个公式——赵朴初，即非赵朴初，是名赵朴初，有没有这个公式呀？”我说：“有。”主席再问：“为什么？先肯定，后否定？”我说：“不是先肯定，后否定，而是同时肯定，同时否定。”谈到这里，客人到了，没有能谈下去。后来，我在写这本书的第二章时，想起这一次未谈完的问答，我想，书中谈到缘起性空的思想，可能补充了当时我在毛主席面前所想讲的话。

我曾看到一本毛主席的勤务员李银桥写的书。有一天，毛主席在延安出门散步，毛主席对李银桥说：“我们去看看佛教寺庙，好不好？”李银桥说：“那有什么看头？都是一些迷信。”毛主席说：“片面片面，那是文化。”我因而想起“文化大革命”结束后，周建人先生写信给我说：“文革”初期范文澜先生向他说，自己正在补课，读佛书。范老说，佛教在中国将近两千年，对中国文化有那么深厚的关系，不懂佛教，就不能懂得中国文化史。1987年，我到四川一个佛教名胜地方看到被人贴迷信标语的事实，回来写了一份报告，钱学森博士看见了，写信给我说：“宗教是文化。”

这三个人，一是伟大的革命家，一是著名的历史学家，一是当代的大科学家，所见相同，都承认佛教是文化，而今天还有不少人的认识水平和当年李银桥的一样。

我最初写这本书的动机只是为了和外国朋友谈话时，翻译人员因缺乏佛教知识而感到困难，想为他们提供一些方便。但这许多年来，得到国内不少人的关怀、鼓励，也得到一些外国朋友的注意。事实说明，这一本小书对于增进人们对佛教的了解，增进国际朋友对中国佛教的了解，不无少许贡献。

我感谢译者为此书所付出的宝贵的心力。我虔诚期待国际朋友对于此书内容给予指教。

赵朴初

1998年6月

1THE BUDDHA AND THE ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM

1Q:What is Buddhism?

A:Buddhism,in a general sense,is a religion with its canonical literature,rites,customs,Sa?gha Order(congregational organization)etc.;more specifically,it is the Buddha's teachings,and with this specific meaning it should be termed the Buddha Dhamma.

2Q:What is "Dhamma"?

A:"Dharma"in Sanskrit("Dhamma"in Pali)means "retaining one's own nature,so that it can be recognized".That is to say,everything has its own attributes and appearance(S.prak?ti and lak?a?a,P.pakati and lakkha?a)and maintains its own properties,by which people can perceive it as what it is.For instance,water maintains its property of wetness and acts according to its fixed track,so people recognize it as water when they see it.Conversely,when something is devoid of wetness and obey different rules from water,there then can be no conception of water.Therefore,Buddhism views everything as "dhamma".The terms "all dhammas","each dhamma"appearing in Buddhist canons indicate "all things"or "universal existence".According to this interpretation,the discourses delivered by the Buddha based on his own empirical comprehension of dhammas are also "Dhamma"since they hold true to the principle of "retaining its own nature,so that it can be recognized."

3Q:Is the Buddha a deity?

A:No,the Buddha is not a deity.He was a man who lived in the 6th century BC.He had his own given and family names,his given name being Siddhattha(S.Siddhartha)and his family name Gotama(S.Gautama).As he belonged to the Sakya clan,people also called him Sakyamuni,meaning a sage of the Sakyas.

4Q:Why is the Buddha called "Fo"in Chinese?What does it mean?

A:"Fo"is the abbreviation for "Fotuo"which was used to translate the word "Buddha".(The characters used for "Fotuo"were pronounced "buda"at the time of translation.)Buddha means "an enlightened one"or "an awakened one".The term "Buddha"existed in India from the earliest times,but Buddhism has attributed three additional connotations to the term.They are as follows:(1)enlightenment(Sambodhi,which means thoroughly realizing the properties and appearance of all dhammas as they are);(2)perfect enlightenment(Samma—sambodhi,which means not only enlightening oneself but also equally and universally enlightening others);(3)supreme or paramount enlightenment(Anuttara samma—sambodhi,which means one's wisdom and achievement have reached the highest and the most perfect sphere in enlightening both oneself and others).

5Q:Are there any other Buddhas besides Sakyamuni?

A:Buddhism claims that there were people who attained Buddhahood in the past,and there will be people to become Buddhas in the future.It is possible for everybody to achieve enlightenment.Therefore,"All living beings have the Buddha—nature,everyone with the Buddha—nature may attain Buddhahood."

6Q:Is the Chinese term "Rulai Fo"identical to Sakyamuni or is he somebody else?

A:"Rulai"was translated from the Sanskrit word "Tathagata"."Ru"means "suchness"(tathata),or "according to the reality"(Yathabhuta?),i.e.the ultimate reality of all dhammas,while "lai"means "come"."Rulai"(Tathagata)is interpreted in the Buddhist scriptures as "coming by the path of Tathagata"or "coming according to the reality".Tathagata is a general term and another name for "the Buddha".Thus Gotama Buddha can be called Gotama Tathagata,and Amita Buddha can be called Amita Tathagata.

7Q:Are Amita Buddha and Gotama Buddha not one and the same?

A:No,Amita Buddha or Amitabha is the Buddha of another world.The Chinese term "Amituofo"is the transliteration from Sanskrit of "Amitabha",meaning "boundless light".

8Q:What is the meaning of "Nanmo Fo"(南无佛)?Why is it pronounced as "Namo Fo"(那摩佛)?

A:"Nanmo"is the transliteration of the Sanskrit "Namo".The Chinese characters "南无"were used since their pronunciation was similar with "namo"in ancient times when this term was introduced into China.Such a pronunciation is still preserved now in parts of China's Guangdong and Fujian provinces."Namo"means salutation or homage.Even today,when Indians meet,they say "Namaste"to each other,that is "Homage to you".

9Q:What is known about the life of Sakyamuni?

A:Well,Sakyamuni lived around the 6th century BC,equivalent to the Spring and Autumn Period in China,and was a contemporary of Confucius.He was the eldest son of the King of Kapilavatthu.His father was named Suddhodana;his mother,Maya.Queen Maya gave birth to Prince Siddhattha on the way to her parents'home while taking a rest under a tree in Lumbini Grove,since,according to the custom prevailing in India at that time,women should go back to their parents'home for child bearing.

10Q:Are there any vestiges of Lumbini Grove remaining today?

A:During the 7th century AD,Tipi?akacariya Xuan Zang(Hsuan Tsang)of China visited Lumbini Grove.According to his account,he saw the stone pillar erected there by King A?oka about 800years before,marking the birthplace of the Buddha.The site at that time,however,was in a state of desolation,the pillar having been struck by lightning and the top having fallen down onto the ground.Subsequently,the birthplace of the Buddha sank into oblivion because nobody could read the letters on the pillar.It was not until 1897when the A?oka pillar was re—discovered,archeologists deciphered the inscriptions and the ravaged ruins of Lumbini Grove were excavated.Some ancient settlements were also excavated in the vicinity of that site,part of which may have belonged to the old city of Kapilavatthu.Today,the government of Nepal has proclaimed it as Holy Land and undertaken necessary reconstruction and protection.

11Q:How was Sakyamuni educated in his childhood?

A:Queen Maya died soon after giving birth.Young Sakyamuni was brought up by his aunt(his mother's sister)Princess Prajapati.As a child he began to learn literature,philosophy,arithmetic and so on from Brahmin scholars and gained a broad and profound knowledge.He also learned martial arts from warriors and became a master at riding,shooting and fencing.Because of his great intelligence and striking features,his father,king Suddhodana,hoped that he would become a universal ruler(Raja Cakkavattin,a king who could unify the whole world)and perform meritorious services after he succeeded to the throne.

12Q:Why didn't he succeed to the throne later on?

A:Prince Siddhattha in his childhood developed the habit of meditating.Many phenomena he observed touched him strongly and made him think hard:e.g.the hungry,thirsty and exhausted peasants working under the scorching sun,panting and sweating cattle being flogged as they plough,the struggle among snakes,insects,birds and beasts under the law of the jungle,weak and ugly old people,the moaning and suffering sick,the dead in funeral processions with their families and friends weeping behind.All these presented him with a problem:how to deliver the world from suffering.Neither the Veda he had read nor the knowledge he had acquired,nor his future throne and power could solve this problem.Therefore,he harbored the idea of renouncing the world in his early days,and finally he relinquished his throne.

13Q:How could his father agree to his renunciation?

A:Having found out what his son had in mind,King Suddhodana tried many ways to detain him,especially by surrounding him with worldly pleasures.When Siddhattha was only 16years old,King Suddhodana arranged for him to marry Princess Yasodhara from a neighboring state.Yasodhara bore him a son named Rahula.But all this was in vain.He finally slipped out of the capital city in the still of a night.He entered a forest,took off his princely clothes and,having shaven his head and beard,became a wandering mendicant.Regarding his age at the time of renunciation,there are two different accounts—one says nineteen,and the other twenty—nine.

14Q:What about his life after he renounced the world?

A:Having tried in vain to persuade him to return,his father chose five men from his clan to accompany him.They were Kau inya,Bhadrika,Va?pa,Mahanama,and A?vajit(P.Ko a a,Bhaddiya,Vappa,Mahanama,Assaji).Prince Siddhattha and his followers successively paid visits to three famous scholars and learned from them,but none of them could satisfy his quest.When he realized that no real path of deliverance(or absolution)was to be found in the philosophical thought of that time,he left for a forest on the banks of the Nera?jara river,now the Lilaian,and lived there with other ascetics.In his search for emancipation,he went through suffering and pain for six years.However,since it proved fruitless,he began to understand that austerities were to no avail.So he went to take a bath in the Nera?jara River,cleaning off all the dirt of six years.Then,after accepting the milk gruel offered by a herdswoman,his strength was restored afresh.When his five followers saw this,they thought he had abandoned his faith and spiritual efforts,so they left him for Benares City(P.Bara?asi)to continue their ascetic practices.The Prince then went alone to a Pippala tree and made a seat with auspicious grass(ku?a)under the tree.Sitting down with his legs crossed and facing the east he vowed,"Now should I fail to attain supreme enlightenment,I would rather have my body decompose than rise from this seat."In such a manner,he commenced meditating on absolution,and finally one night defeated the moral affliction and Mara's temptations(kilesa and Mara),achieved complete enlightenment,thereby becoming a Buddha.

15Q:Are there any vestiges remaining of the site where Sakyamuni became a Buddha?

A:The site where Sakyamuni attained Buddhahood has been known as the Place of Enlightenment or Buddhagaya ever since.The Pippala tree there,as well as that kind of tree in general later became known as Bodhi tree.Bodhi means enlightenment.Buddhagaya is situated in the southern suburbs of Gaya City in Bihar Pradesh of India today.In the course of more than twenty centuries,the Bodhi tree was twice chopped down and once blown over,but always sprouted again.The present Bodhi tree is a great grandson of the original one.At the plot where the Buddha sat under the tree is a stone—carved diamond pedestal(Vajrasana).To the east of the tree is a majestic thupa(S.stupa)temple known as Mahabodhi arama with a history of over 18centuries,and nearby are a number of traces of the Buddha and ancient carved stones and constructions.In 1956,the government of Bihar Pradesh appointed an international advisory committee to supervise the construction and administration of the Holy Land.At its invitation the Buddhist Association of China,sent two delegates to that committee.

16Q:Would you please give a brief account regarding his life after Sakyamuni attained Buddhahood?

A:There are different versions regarding the age at which Sakyamuni attained enlightenment,some quote it as thirty and some as thirty—five.For fifty(or forty—five)years after that,until the end of his life at the age of 80,he never stopped preaching his doctrine.He traveled widely,preaching to the public the truth he had perceived.At the outset,he went to Benares(P.Bara?asi)to look for his five departed followers and preached the truth to them.The first sermon of the Buddha is called "the initial turning of the wheel of Dhamma"(S.Dharmacakra pravartana,P.Dhammacakkappavattana)in Buddhism.

17Q:What does "turning the wheel of Dhamma"(Dhammacakkappavattana)mean?

A:Cakka(wheel)was a wheel—like weapon used in wars in ancient India.There was an old legend in India that the raja(king)that conquered the world would be the Rajacakkavattin,i.e."The wheel—turning king".At the time of his birth,a wheel appeared in the sky,prophesying that he would be unconquerable in the future.In Buddhism the wheel is used as a metaphor of the Dhamma preached by the Buddha.Once the Buddha's Dhammacakka emerged,all the wrong thinking and evil things would be smashed and vanish.Hence the preaching of Dhamma is called Dhammacakkappavattana(turning the wheel of Dhamma).The Buddha's initial turning of the wheel of Dhamma took place at Sarnath M?gadava(Deer Park)in present—day Benares.Through the recent excavations,quite a few valuable relics have been discovered at Sarnath,including the King A?oka stone pillar,stone—engraved images of the Buddha's first turning of the wheel of Dhamma dating from the 4th century AD etc.Even the ruins of the ancient thupa temple were unearthed.Buddhist temples,museums and a library now standing there were built over the last few decades.There are four places regarded as the holy places of Buddhism:(1)Sarnath,where the Buddha initially turned the wheel of Dhamma,(2)Lumbini Grove,where the Buddha was born,(3)Buddhagaya,where the Buddha attained enlightenment,and(4)Kusinara,where the Buddha passed away.It is worthy of note that modern scholars excavated and repaired the holy places and other historical sites mainly on the basis of the records of the ancient Chinese pilgrims like Fa Xian(Fa Hsien)and Xuan Zang(Hsuan Tsang).

18Q:Why is the site of the Buddha's first sermon looked upon as more important than other sermon sites?

A:The Buddha's initial turning of the wheel of Dhamma at Sarnath was a great event in Buddhism.At that time,Buddhism was established;and after that,the Three Gems(Tiratana)came into existence.

19Q:What are the Three Gems(Tiratana)?

A:The Three Gems are the Gem of the Buddha,the enlightened one,the Gem of Dhamma,the teachings given by the Buddha,and the Gem of Sa?gha,the Order of the Buddha's monastic disciples.These three are called gems(ratana)because they can lead people to stop doing evil and to perform kindness,to free themselves from suffering and to gain happiness.The title of "The Three Gems"also shows the great value placed on them.When the Buddha initially turned the wheel of Dhamma,Ko a a and others,five of them in all,followed the Buddha,renounced lay life and became the Buddha's disciples,thus forming the Sa?gha Order.Therefore,the Three Gems have been cherished since that time.

20Q:What is the meaning of "abiding by the Three Gems"("Ti—sara?a?gacchami")?

A:Ti—sara?a?gacchami means that one abides by the Three Gems with one's heart and soul.Those who have gone to and relied on the Three Gems are Buddhists.

21Q:Were there many people who came and followed the Buddha during his lifetime?

A:Yes.On the way from Sarnath to Magadha State after the Buddha's first sermon,many people were converted to follow his teachings.Among them were three brothers,Brahmins,by the name of Kassapa.They had been Zoroastrians,but were now converted and brought along with them more than one thousand of their followers to be converted to Buddhism.After the Buddha arrived in Rajagaha,the capital of Magadha,many more people were converted,including some who were to become prominent disciples,like Sariputta,Mahamoggallana and Mahakassapa.Afterwards,when the Buddha returned to his native land,a number of his relatives:his younger half brother Nanda,his cousins ananda and Devadatta,his son Rahula became monastic disciples.Among them,there was a barber named Up?li,who had served the royal family,and later became a famous master of Buddhist disciplines(Vinaya bhanaka).The Buddha's aunt Prajapati also followed to become the first female monastic disciple of the Buddha.Besides,even more devotees were converted to the faith without renouncing the home life.Therefore,the Buddha's disciples consist of Bhikkhu(monks)and Bhikkhuni(nuns),who form the Buddhist monastic order;and Upasaka and Upasika,who are the male and female lay followers;together they are known as the four groups of disciples.

22Q:Where did Sakyamuni travel and preach during his life?

A:According to historical records and excavations,the Buddha's own footprints mainly covered Central India.His disciples,dispersed in all quarters,might have gone further afield.There are also legends in Sri Lanka and Myanmar about the Buddha visiting and leaving his footprints there.During the Buddha's lifetime,he resided for the most part in Rajagaha,in the states of Magadha and Savatthi in the state of Kosala.Outside Rajagaha was a bamboo forest,donated to the Buddha and his disciples by King Bimbisara,which later came to be known as Bamboo Grove Monastery(Ve?uvanaramaya).In Savatthi,there was a garden given to the Buddha jointly by a rich merchant,Sudatta,and Prince Jeta of Kosala.This garden was known later as Jeta Grove Monastery(Jetavanaramaya or Jetavana Anathapi ikassa—arama).Since the Buddha used to travel between the two places,both became important sites for the promotion of his doctrines.Gijjhaku?a Hill,situated south of Rajagaha,was another place frequented by the Buddha and his disciples for preaching.Prior to his death,the Buddha went northward from Rajagaha to Vesali(Bihar Pradesh in modern India).Then he turned northwest,and finally arrived at Kusinara(now Kasia in Uttar Pradesh,India)where he passed away(Parinibbana).In modern times,excavations have uncovered the site of his cremation,and discovered a stone—carved image of his nibbana as well as other relics.In commemoration of the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha's Nibbana(S.Nirvana),the government of India has done some essential repair and construction in the holy place.

23Q:What is "Nibbana"?

A:This will be fully explained later.It may be simply interpreted as death.

24Q:What were the circumstances immediately before and after the Buddha's Nibbana?

A:The Buddha had been very sick when in Vesali.After the Rainy Season Retreat(Vassa)in Vesali he went with his disciples towards the northwest.On the way he had food offered by the blacksmith Cunda and became seriously ill.Finally he reached the bank of a river in Kusi?ara.After taking a bath he lay on his right side with his head resting on his right hand,on a hammock placed among four pairs of sala trees.Subsequently,all the recumbent(Sleeping)Buddha statues or the statues of the Buddha's Nibbana have been modeled in this posture.The Buddha informed his disciples of the approach of his Nibba?a,and all his disciples watched over him.At night,a Brahmin scholar named Subhadda came to see the Buddha.When Ananda tried to stop him,the Buddha called Subhadda to his bedside and preached a discourse for him,so Subhadda became the last disciple of the Buddha's lifetime.From the time he left Vesali on the journey,the Buddha preached to his disciples many times and at midnight when he was about to die,he told them for the last time,"You should not think that you no longer have a teacher.Rather you should regard the teachings(Dhamma)as your teacher.Be diligent in striving for salvation.Never be indolent."

After the Buddha's death,his body was cremated.The remains were divided into eight portions by Magadha,the Sakya,and other states and then enshrined in thupas constructed in the eight states.By the 3rd century BC a portion of the Buddha's Sarira enshrined in Buddhagaya in Magadha was taken out by King A?oka and was divided into many portions to be stored in thupas in different places.In 1898,archeologists discovered a Sarira thupa on the southern border of Nepal when they excavated an ancient location of Kapilavatthu.Inside the thupa they found stone vases,urns and other articles.One of the vases was kept in an urn made of layers of iron and crystal.In the vase there was a golden flower with the Buddha's bones placed on it.The inscription on the urn indicates that this is the Buddha's Sarira enshrined by the Sakyas.