从定语从句的构造角度来看,定语从句由两个有指代关系的简单句合并而成。 比如下面这两个简单句:
a. The man is sitting over there.
b. I was telling you about him.
二者之间存在指代关系:b句中的him指代a句中的the man。如何把它们合并成一个定语从句呢?我总结了一个“三个步骤、六字真言”的构造方法。具体阐述如下:
1 指代:
第一步是找指代关系,即一个句子中的名词与另一个句子中的代词具有指代关系。比如刚才说过:b句中的him指代a句中的the man。
【The man】is sitting over there. I was telling you about【him】.
2 替换:
第二步是把代词替换为关系词who(指人)或which(指物)等。本句中的him是指人,所以要替换成who:
【The man】is sitting over there. I was telling you about【who】.
3 移位:
第三步是移位操作。最多就两种移位操作: 关系词移位 和 定语从句移位 。这两种移位在本句中都存在。
一是 关系词移位 :即把充当宾语(动词后的宾语或介词后的宾语)的关系词移到定语从句的句首。于是本句要把who移到I前面:
【The man】is sitting over there. 【who】I was telling you about.
这里的who I was telling you about即是一个完整的定语从句。
二是 定语从句移位 :若定语从句不是修饰句末的名词,而是修饰句中的名词,此时需要把整个定语从句移到被修饰名词(即先行词)后边。本句中的主语the man是被修饰的名词,于是需要把整个定语从句who I was telling you about移到the man后边:
【The man】【who I was telling you about】is sitting over there.
于是最终得到一个带有定语从句的主从复合句:
c. The man who I was telling you about is sitting over there.
综上所述,两个简单句合并成一个定语从句要经历三步骤(这让我想起宋丹丹说的把大象装进冰箱需要三步骤),即 指代、替换和移位 。这可谓是定语从句的 “六字真言” ,因为一切定语从句都是两个简单句合并的结果,而简单句的合并都不外乎这六个字。所以,大家要深刻理解满胜老师送给你的这“六字真言”!
在这“六字真言”中,“移位”需要多说点。根据简单句的结构,上述移位操作可以同时有两个,或只有其中一个,或都没有。下面进一步举例说明。
只有定语从句移位的例句:
a. The man is sitting over there.
b. He teaches us English.
1 指代:
he指代the man:
【The man】is sitting over there. 【He】teaches us English.
2 替换:
把he换成who:
【The man】is sitting over there. 【who】teaches us English.
3 移位:(本句只有定语从句移位)
关系词移位:由于who作主语,已经在定语从句的句首,所以无须进行关系词移位。
定语从句移位:需要把整个定语从句who teaches us English移到the man后边:
【The man】【who teaches us English】is sitting over there.
于是最终得到一个带有定语从句的主从复合句:
c. The man who teaches us English is sitting over there.
只有关系词移位的例句:
a. Mary likes the man.
b. I was telling you about him.
1 指代:
him指代the man:
Mary likes【the man】. I was telling you about【him】.
2 替换:
把him换成who:
Mary likes【the man】. I was telling you about【who】.
3 移位:(本句只有关系词移位)
关系词移位:由于who作about的宾语,不在句首,所以需要把who移到I前面:
Mary likes【the man】. 【who】I was telling you about.
定语从句移位:由于是修饰句末名词the man,所以,我们直接把定语从句who I was telling you about放在the man后边即可,而无须把定语从句移到句中。
Mary likes【the man】【who I was telling you about】.
于是最终得到一个带有定语从句的主从复合句:
c. Mary likes the man who I was telling you about.
无须进行移位操作的例句:
a. Mary likes the man.
b. He teaches us English.
1 指代:
he指代the man:
Mary likes【the man】. 【He】teaches us English.
2 替换:
把he换成who:
Mary likes【the man】. 【who】teaches us English.
3 移位:(本句无须进行移位操作)
关系词移位:由于who作主语,已经在定语从句的句首,所以无须进行关系词移位。
定语从句移位:由于是修饰句末名词the man,所以,我们直接把定语从句who teaches us English放在the man后边即可,而无须把定语从句移到句中。
Mary likes【the man】【who teaches us English】.
于是最终得到一个带有定语从句的主从复合句:
c. Mary likes the man who teaches us English.
为什么关系词移位或定语从句移位有时存在,有时不存在?这与关系词的位置以及定语从句的位置有关。在下面 第二章 、 第三章 我们将分别针对这两个问题展开深入讨论。
下面我们来讨论一下定语从句的初学者往往容易犯的错误。
1 不知道该把哪个句子作为主句或从句:
看到我上面的讨论,也许有读者会认为这应该不是一个问题,因为就是把名词所在的句子作为主句,代词所在的句子作为从句。这么认为有时固然不错。比如上面讨论过的这两个句子:
a. Mary likes the man.
b. He teaches us English.
此时把a作为主句,合并后的定语从句是:
c. Mary likes the man who teaches us English.
现在,如果我们把the man和he交换位置:
a1.Mary likes him.
b1. The man teaches us English.
此时需要把b句作为主句,按照上述三步操作,合并后的定语从句是:
c1.The man who Mary likes teaches us English.
显然c句与c1句的语义是不同的:c句是强调“Mary喜欢谁”,c1句是强调“谁教我们英语”。语义不同背后的原因是: 英语句子的重心意思在主句谓语上 。 因此,若主句谓语不同,则整个句子的含义就会不同。 因此,c句的主句谓语likes是重心,而c1句的主句谓语teaches是重心。
上面这个例句中的a、b两句都可以作为主句,这算是碰巧。很多句子是只能把其中一个分句作为主句,否则就会导致逻辑语义不通。比如:
a. The girl won the race.
b. She is happy.
显然,这里she指代the girl。如果按照名词来判断主句的话,那么应该把a句作为主句,这样一来整个句子就会写成:
c. The girl who is happy won the race. *
这句话虽然语法结构正确,但是这样写的意思是 “很高兴的那个女孩赢得了比赛” ,显然逻辑语义不对或者说不好,因为这样说暗含着“高兴”导致“赢得比赛”这样错误的逻辑推理。其实,原句是暗含着“赢得比赛”导致“高兴”,此时要说成:
d. The girl who won the race is happy.( 赢得比赛的那个女孩非常高兴。 )
这样一来,我们是把b句作为主句,在构造定语从句的时候,把she还原成the girl即可。
再比如下面这组句子:
a. The man answered the phone.
b. He told me you were away.
如果按照名词来判断主句的话,那么应该把a句作为主句,这样一来整个句子就会写成:
c. The man who told me you were away answered the phone. *
这样写的意思是“ 告诉我你离开了的那位男子接的电话 ”,显然不合常理。按常识,应该是“接电话的那位男子告诉我你离开了”,因此要说成:
d. The man who answered the phone told me you were away.
这样一来,我们是把b句作为主句,在构造定语从句的时候,把he还原成the man即可。
所以, 判断该把哪个句子作为主句的依据不是看名词,而是应该看句意或看逻辑语义关系。
2 只把关系词移位到先行词后边:
初学者容易犯的另外一个错误是:只把关系词移位到先行词后边,而把定语从句的剩余部分乱扔在别处。比如:
a. The man is standing over there.
b. I was telling you about him.
正确的造句应该是:
c. The man who I was telling you about is standing over there.
可是,有人会只想着把who移到the man后边,而把定语从句的其余内容I was telling you about依然忘在了句末,因而会说出这样错误的句子:
d. The man who is standing over there I was telling you about.*
这样一来就会把who is standing over there当成了定语从句。在此错误基础上,若进行修改,很容易直接把I was telling you about移到句首,说成:
e. I was telling you about the man who is standing over there. *
同上面第1点讲过的,这句话语法结构正确,但逻辑语义不好,意为“ 我刚刚就在和你说起此刻正站在那里的那个男的 ”,这给人一种穿越的感觉,仿佛是“我”在过去和“你”讲话的时刻就能预言到他此刻会站在那里。正常的句意应该是“ 我刚刚和你说起的那个男的,现在正站在那里 ”,或者说“ 现在正站在那里的那个男子就是我刚刚和你说起的 ”。
对于两个简单句的合并,我们就可以按照上述“三个步骤、六字真言”——指代、替换、移位——来进行操作。前面强调过,不是任意两个简单句都能合并成定语从句,必须是有指代关系的两个简单句才能合并。所以,定语从句在英文中通常被称作“关系从句”(relative clause)。其中的“关系”其实就是“指代关系”。
既然定语从句原本是由两个简单句合并而成,那么我们自然就可以对一个定语从句进行拆分,然后还原成两个简单句。这种对定语从句进行拆分的意义重大。这种认识可以帮助我们理解各种复杂的定语从句。也就是说,任何一个复杂的定语从句其实都可以还原成两个简单句,还原之后我们就能更好地理解原本复杂的定语从句的逻辑语义关系。因此,大家以后面对复杂的定语从句时,都可以试着还原成两个简单句,以此来理清定语从句的逻辑语义结构。我们来看下面这道题:
Language is a city, to the building of ______ every human being brought a stone.
a. which
b. it
c. that
d. this
你的答案:___________________
我们看到,逗号前后是两个句子,因而空格处必须填入一个连词,因为逗号不能连接两个句子。据此排除不是连词的it和this。另外,关系代词that不能用在介词后边,因而也被排除。所以,最终选择a. which。
我们看到关系词which前边有to the building of这一复杂成分。这是怎么回事呢?现在我们只需要把这个定语从句还原成简单句,即可真相大白!我们同样还是按照上述的“指代、替换、移位”这“六字真言”来把定语从句还原成简单句。具体说明如下:
1 指代:
这里which指代主句中的名词,那么就是city,而这里city等于language,也就是说,which实际上指代language。
2 替换:
所以,to the building of which =to the building of language 。
3 移位:
下面我们尝试把to the building of language 放回到定语从句中去。此时我们需要分析从句的结构:从句的主语是every human being,从句的谓语是brought,从句的宾语是a stone。这看似一个完整的“主谓宾”句型,但考虑到bring一般接双宾语,比如说成bring X to Y这个结构,因此,我们可以把这个定语从句还原为这样一个简单句:Every human being brought a stone to the building of language ,也就是说这里介词to与动词brought构成搭配。于是,两个简单句是:
主句:Language is a city.
从句对应的简单句:Every human being brought a stone to the building of language.
因此,整个句子可以译成“ 语言犹如一座城,每个人都为它的建造添砖加瓦了 ”。
1.a. I like music.
b. I can dance to music.
2.a. I can sing along with music.
b. I love music.
3.a. I prefer music.
b. It has great lyrics.
4.a. I'd really like to find a friend.
b. I can trust him completely.
5.a. I like music.
b. It is really loud and energetic.
6.a. I prefer music.
b. It isn't too loud.
7.a. I prefer music.
b. It is quiet and gentle.
8.a. The boy sits next to me.
b. He is from America.
9.a. I met the girl at the party last night.
b. I liked her.
10.a. The boy fell from a tree.
b. He was not badly hurt.
11.a. The taxi driver took me to the airport.
b. He was friendly.
12.a. I can't remember the name of the person.
b. I gave the money to him.
13.a. The employees had to retire.
b. They had reached the age of sixty-five.
14.a. I like people.
b. They aren't too serious.
15.a. I like people.
b. They have a good sense of humor.
16.a. I'd prefer someone.
b. I have something in common with them.
17.a. I'd prefer someone.
b. I can talk to them easily.