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在英语里，我们常常碰到定语从句的关系代词（主要是 which ，其他还包括 whom 和 whose ）前面带有介词或介词短语的情况。这些介词什么时候不加，什么时候必须加，以及究竟该用什么介词，这几个问题对于很多读者来说是有一定难度的。对此，笔者是从 1999 年开始关注的，到现在为止，笔者收集了各种“介词 + 关系代词”形式的句子，并总结出了下面这些关于关系代词前面加介词的使用规律以及其他相关句型结构。
选择放在关系词前面的介词，第一条规律就是“看从句选介词”，即根据定语从句中的线索来判断介词。那么要看从句中的什么线索？这些线索包括定语从句中的动词、形容词和名词，所选用的介词须与它们构成固定搭配。
这里所说的动词往往是指定语从句中的谓语动词。我们先来看几个简单的例句：
1 The girl with whom you work is his girl friend.
妙语点睛 关系词 whom 前面的介词 with 与定语从句中的谓语动词 work 构成固定搭配 work with ，表示“和……一起工作”。
精品译文 和你一起工作的那个女孩是他的女朋友。
2 He is the man on whom I think you can depend .
妙语点睛 关系词 whom 前面的介词 on 与定语从句中的谓语动词 depend 构成固定搭配 depend on ，表示“依靠”。
精品译文 我认为他是你可以依靠的人。
3 The buzzard can watch high in the sky the ground for signs of the waste and the dead animals on which it feeds .
妙语点睛 关系词 which 前面的介词 on 与定语从句中的谓语动词 feeds 构成固定搭配 feed on ，表示“以……为生”。
精品译文 秃鹰可以从高空中俯瞰大地，搜寻它们要吃的垃圾和动物尸体。
4 It was luck again, according to Nina, that brought her the role in Mute Wife for which she is best known .
妙语点睛 关系词 which 前面的介词 for 与定语从句中的谓语动词 is known 构成固定搭配 be known for ，表示“因为……而著名”。
精品译文 妮娜认为，这次她又是幸运地在《哑巴妻子》这部剧中担任角色，她正是以此剧目而最为著名。
5 The goals for which he had fought all his life no longer seemed important to him
妙语点睛 关系词 which 前面的介词 for 与定语从句中的谓语动词 fought 构成固定搭配 fight for ，表示“为……而奋斗”。
精品译文 他毕生为之奋斗的目标现在对他来说似乎并不重要了。
6 On the whole such a conclusion can be drawn with a certain degree of confidence, but only if the child can be assumed to have had the same attitude towards the test as the others with whom he is being compared , and only if he was not punished by lack of relevant information which they possessed.
图解难句
妙语点睛 关系词 whom 前面的介词 with 与定语从句中的谓语动词 compared 构成固定搭配 compare...with ，表示“将……与……进行比较”。
精品译文 总的来说，得出这种结论是有一定程度的把握的，但是必须具备两个条件：一是能够假定这个孩子对测试的态度和与他进行比较的另一个孩子的态度相同，二是他也没有因为缺乏别的孩子所具有的有关知识而被扣分。
译文心得 该句含有两个 only if 引导的从句，并且有并列连词 but 和 and 连接，使得整句话的逻辑关系十分清楚，表示“……能够得出结论……但是只要……而且只要”。从以上译文我们可以看出，为了使中文表达更加清楚，我们首先提纲挈领地把 but only if...and only if 译出来，译成“但是必须具备两个条件”。
在以上讨论的例句中，介词都是与定语从句的谓语动词构成固定搭配。其实，介词也可以与从句中的其他动词构成固定搭配关系。比如下面这个例句：
7 Homo erectus is the name commonly given to the primate species from which humans are believed to have evolved .
妙语点睛 关系词 which 前面的介词 from 与定语从句中的不定式动词 evolved （而不是谓语动词 believed ）构成固定搭配 evolve from ，表示“由……进化而来”。
此外，关于这里的不定式为什么要用 have evolved 而不是 evolve ，我们将在第四章“不定式”中的第 4.11 节详细讨论。
精品译文 homo erectus 一词通常是用来指灵长类动物，据说人类就是从灵长类动物进化而来的。
以上讨论的介词往往都是与定语从句的谓语动词（或其他动词）构成固定搭配，但是如果定语从句的谓语不是一个实义动词，而是由 be 动词与某个形容词构成的，我们则要使用与该形容词搭配的介词。请看例句：
8 We assume that the meanings of these underwater sounds are similar to those with which we are familiar on land.
妙语点睛 关系词 which 前面的介词 with 与定语从句谓语部分中的形容词 familiar 构成固定搭配 be familiar with sth. ，表示“对……熟悉”。
精品译文 据我们猜测，这些水下声音的意义同我们所熟悉的陆地上的声音的意义相似。
9 He referred me to some reference books with which I am not very familiar .
妙语点睛 关系词 which 前面的介词 with 与定语从句谓语部分中的形容词 familiar 构成固定搭配 be familiar with sth. ，表示“对……熟悉”。
精品译文 他让我参考的几本书我一本也不熟悉。
10 They will pass along their fresh impressions to the youth groups in which they are active .
妙语点睛 关系词 which 前面的介词 in 与定语从句谓语部分中的形容词 active 构成固定搭配 be active in sth. ，表示“积极参与”。
精品译文 他们回来后会把自己获得的新鲜的印象与同组的其他成员进行交流。
11 Dolphins might be trained to cooperate with fishermen and help them by finding, tracking, herding, or even catching fish-- in all of which activities dolphins are expert .
妙语点睛 关系词 which 构成的短语 all of which activities 前面的介词 in 与定语从句谓语部分中的形容词 expert 构成固定搭配 be expert in sth. ，表示“擅长做某事”。
关于这个句子的更多讲解，请参见 2.11 节。
精品译文 可以训练海豚与渔民们合作，帮他们捕鱼，因为可以通过海豚发现鱼群、跟踪鱼群，或把鱼聚集成群，甚至是直接抓鱼——这些活动都是海豚所擅长的。
另外，有时介词的判断不是根据谓语部分中的形容词，而是要根据作定语的形容词来进行。请看例句：
12 He is her son, than whom a kinder son does not exist.
妙语点睛 这个句子是某一年的高考题。有很多读者多次来信就这个句子询问过笔者，他们对此句很不理解，感觉很奇怪。其实，若将这个句子改成简单句，原本应为： A kinder son than her son does not exist ，意思是说“比她儿子更好的人是找不到了”，言外之意就是说她的儿子是最好的。所以，这里的介词 than 就是与定语从句中作定语的形容词 kinder 构成了呼应搭配。这不同于我们上面看到的那些形容词的例句，那些是与谓语部分中的形容词构成搭配的介词。
精品译文 他是她的儿子，再也找不到像他这么好的儿子了。
以上讨论的介词，往往是与定语从句中的谓语动词或谓语部分中的形容词构成搭配。但如果从句中的动词或形容词都没有可与之形成固定搭配的介词，那么我们则要根据从句中的名词来分辨介词。请看例句：
13 I am sending you an inquiry, to which your prompt attention is highly appreciated.
妙语点睛 这句话通常会出现在商务函电中。这里的关系词 which 前面的介词 to 与定语从句中的名词 attention 构成固定搭配 attention to ，表示“处理”。
精品译文 兹寄去询价单一纸，望尽快办理，不胜感激。
14 Many hypersomniacs suffer from narcolepsy, for which the primary symptom is excessive daytime sleepiness.
妙语点睛 这里的关系词 which 前面的介词 for 与定语从句中的名词 symptom 构成固定搭配 symptom for ，表示“是……症状”。
精品译文 许多嗜睡的人都患有嗜睡病，其早期症状就是在白天都极度想睡觉。
在上一小节中，我们讨论了关系词前面的介词往往是与定语从句中的动词、形容词或名词构成固定搭配，也就是说，在判断选用什么介词时，我们要关注定语从句中的线索。在那里，定语从句的结构一般都是不完整的，而“介词 + 关系代词”结构在定语从句中充当了动词、形容词或名词的某一修饰成分。
在本小节，我们来讨论另外一种完全不同的判断介词的情形，就是关系词前面用什么介词与定语从句没有关系，而是与关系词前面的先行词密切相关，所选用的介词要与先行词构成固定搭配，笔者简称其为“看先行词选介词”。在详细讨论之前，我们先来看一个例句：
1 The ease with which Mr. Zhang cracked the complex sentence was unbelievable.
很多读者看到上面这个句子，也许感到很不理解或不习惯，这就如同笔者当初的感受一样，觉得这样的定语从句非常别扭。现在笔者详细分析如下：
妙语点睛 我们可以把上面这个句子拆分成这样的两个简单句：
1) Mr. Zhang cracked the complex sentence
with ease
and
the ease
was unbelievable.
读者应该知道短语
with ease
表示“熟练地，轻而易举地”，所以，上面这个句子的意思就是“张老师能够轻而易举地分析这个复杂的句子。这种轻松程度让人难以置信”。
现在我们要把
the ease was unbelievable
作为主句，将
Mr. Zhang cracked the complex sentence with ease
作为定语从句来修饰
the ease
，将这两句合并起来就是：
2)
The ease
(Mr. Zhang cracked the complex sentence
with ease
) was unbelievable.
先行词是
ease
，所以我们用关系词
which
来指代，再将上句改写成：
3)
The ease
(Mr. Zhang cracked the complex sentence
with which
) was unbelievable.
关系词
which
应该放在从句的开头，又因为
with which
（就相当于
with ease
）是一个固定搭配，所以要将
with which
一同移到句子开头，于是上句就进一步改写成：
4)
The ease
(
with which
Mr. Zhang cracked the complex sentence) was unbelievable.
至此，一个标准的定语从句诞生了！这里的关系词
which
前面的介词
with
与先行词
ease
构成固定搭配
with ease
。
精品译文 对于这个复杂的句子，张老师能够如此轻而易举地分析出来，这真是让人难以置信。
我们再来看一个有关 with ease 搭配的定语从句：
2 The ease with which the fish can be collected from the shore has almost resulted in its extinction.
精品译文 人们在岸边就能够轻而易举地捕到鱼，这几乎使这里的鱼灭绝了。
我们来分析一个有关 at the rate 搭配的定语从句：
3 About a thousand species of animals are in danger of extinction, and the rate at which they are being destroyed has increased.
妙语点睛 我们可以把上面这个句子拆分成这样的简单句：
1) About a thousand species of animals are in danger of extinction. They are being destroyed
at this rate
and
the rate
has increased.
这句话表示“约有
1000
种动物濒临灭绝的危险，它们目前正在以这样的速度遭到人类的杀戮，而且这个速度还在增加。”
我们现在要明确说明是什么速度在增加，于是用
they are being destroyed at this rate
作定语修饰
the rate
，我们便得到：
2)
The rate
(they are being destroyed
at this rate
) has increased.
先行词是
rate
，所以我们用关系词
which
来指代，上句便改写成：
3)
The rate
(they are being destroyed
at which
) has increased.
关系词
which
应该放在从句的开头，又因为
at which
（就相当于
at this rate
）是一个固定搭配，所以要将
at which
一同移到句子开头，于是上句就进一步改写成：
4)
The rate
(
at which
they are being destroyed) has increased.
最后，我们得到一个标准的定语从句，如下：
The rate at which
they are being destroyed has increased.
这里的关系词 which 前面的介词 at 与先行词 rate 构成固定搭配 at the rate 。
精品译文 约有 1000 种动物濒临灭绝的危险，而且它们受残害的速度日益加快。
分析至此，相信读者也看到了，要想正确地使用介词，我们必须记住相关的介词短语搭配。常见的有： with ease, at the rate, in the direction, to the extent, to the degree, at the temperature, by the means, by the mode, in a culture, in practice 等等。我们再来看更多的例句，请认真分析：
4 The speed at which an animal lives is determined by measuring the rate at which it uses oxygen.
妙语点睛 这里的两个定语从句的关系词 which 前面的介词都是 at ，都分别与先行词 speed 和 rate 构成固定搭配， at which 就等于说 at the speed 和 at the rate ，表示“以这种速度”，在定语从句中作状语，修饰从句的谓语。
精品译文 通过测定动物消耗氧气的速率可以测定该动物的生长速度。
5 When television was first introduced, the extent to which it would affect human society could not have been foreseen.
妙语点睛 这里的关系词 which 前面的介词 to 与先行词 extent 构成固定搭配， to which 就等于说 to the extent ，表示“在某种程度上”，在定语从句中作状语，修饰谓语动词 affect 。
精品译文 人们发明电视的时候，并没能预见到它会对人类社会产生多大的影响。
6 Public demonstrations are an effective means by which the people can bring social inequalities to the attention of government officials.
妙语点睛 这里的关系词 which 前面的介词 by 与先行词 means 构成固定搭配， by which 就等于说 by the means ，表示“通过这种方式”，在定语从句中作状语，修饰从句的谓语。
精品译文 公众通过游行示威这种方式，可以有效地让政府官员们注意到不平等的社会现实。
7 The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind; it is simply the mode by which all phenomena are reasoned about and given precise and exact explanation.
妙语点睛 这里的关系词 which 前面的介词 by 与先行词 mode 构成固定搭配， by which 就等于说 by mode ，表示“通过某种方式”。
精品译文 科学研究的方法不过是人类思维活动的必要表达方式，也就是对一切现象进行思索并给以精确而严谨解释的表达方式。
8 An important factor in a market-oriented economy is the mechanism by which consumer demands can be expressed and responded to by producers.
妙语点睛 这里的关系词 which 前面的介词 by 与先行词 mechanism 构成固定搭配， by which 就等于说 by the mechanism ，表示“通过这种机制”。
精品译文 在以市场为导向的经济中，一个非常重要的因素就是一种用来表现消费者需求并使生产商能作出反应的机制。
到目前为止，我们详细分析了两种判断关系词前面的介词如何使用的方法，一种是根据定语从句中的动词、形容词或名词来判断，另一种是根据先行词来判断。这两种方法是最常用、最重要的，为此，下面我们再来深入地比较一下这两种方法的特点，以便读者更好地理解和掌握。请注意以下几点：
根据定语从句判断介词，所用介词与从句中的动词、形容词或名词构成搭配，比如： depend on , familiar with , attention to 等等。
根据先行词判断介词，所用介词与先行词构成搭配，比如： with ease, at the rate, to the extent 等等。
通过比较我们发现，介词在短语中的位置是不同的，一个是在短语的末尾，比如 to 在 attention 的后面；一个是在短语的开头，比如 with 是在 ease 的前面。因此，同样是名词，若是定语从句中的名词，则要看名词后面用什么介词；而如果是先行名词，则要看名词前面用什么介词。比如下面这两个句子：
1 It was he ______ we had the greatest faith.
2 This is the faith ______ I come back.
A. in which
B. in whom
C. with which
D. with whom
妙语点睛 在例句 1 中，我们要根据从句中的 faith 来判断介词，此时就要看 faith 后面应该接什么介词与之形成搭配。我们知道英语里有一个短语 have faith in sb. ，表示“对某人信任”。因此，例句 1 应该选 B 。
在例句 2 中，我们要根据先行词 faith 来判断介词，此时要看 faith 前面应该用什么介词与之形成搭配。我们知道英语里还有一个短语 with faith ，表示“怀着某种信念”。因此，例句 2 应该选 C 。
精品译文 1. 我们最信任的人是他。
2. 正是怀着这个信念，我回来了。
虽然都是“介词 + 关系代词”这一结构，但两种判断方法所选用的介词在句中的位置是有差别的。若是看从句选介词，所用的介词可前置，即置于关系代词前面（如下面的例句 1 ）；也可后置，即把介词后移到定语从句中，分别紧跟在动词、形容词或名词后面（如下面的例句 2 ）。比如我们可以说：
1 He is the man on whom you can depend.
也可以说：
2 He is the man who you can depend on .
在口语中，介词往往是置于从句中的。在书面语中，我们最好还是把介词置于关系词的前面，这样句子显得紧凑。
另一方面，看先行词选介词，比如下面这个句子：
3 The ease with which Mr. Zhang cracked the complex sentence was unbelievable.
因为 with which 就相当于 with ease ，二者是一个固定搭配，此时介词 with 与定语从句中的任何词都没有语义上的关系，因此，介词 with 是无法后移到从句中的，只能在关系词前面。
综上所述，看从句选介词，这个介词可以放在关系词前面，也可以后移到定语从句中。但是，看先行词选介词，这个介词只能放在关系词前面。
看从句选介词时，定语从句的意思一般都是不完整的，而“介词 + 关系代词”结构补充说明定语从句中的动词、形容词或名词的意思。比如上面例句 1 中的定语从句 you can depend 的意思是不完整的，只有加上 on whom 意思才完整，表示“你可以依靠这个人”。
看先行词选介词时，定语从句的意思是完整的，或者说定语从句中没有任何词缺少与之搭配的介词。比如上面例句 3 中的定语从句 Mr. Zhang cracked the complex sentence 是一个意思完整的句子。
正是因为上述的两种判断介词的方法在定语从句的完整性方面有差异，导致“介词 + 关系代词”这一结构在定语从句中所充当的成分是不同的。看从句选介词，这种情况下的介宾结构“介词 + 关系代词”是在定语从句中作 补足语 ，补充说明从句中的某个动词、形容词或名词。比如上面的例句 1 中， on whom 是补充说明动词 depend ，作 depend 的补足语。
而看先行词选介词，这种情况下的介宾结构“介词 + 关系代词”是在定语从句中作 状语 ，修饰从句的谓语动词。比如在上面的例句 3 中， with ease 修饰定语从句的谓语 cracked ，表示方式，即方式状语。
分析了上述四方面的差别，相信读者应该比较深入地理解了如何判断关系词前面的介词。但是，也许还会有读者提出这样一个疑问：如何决定何时应该看从句选介词，何时应该看先行词选介词呢？会不会出现既要看从句又要看先行词，从而造成对介词的判断发生冲突的情形呢？
从以上的分析我们看到，看先行词选介词，此时的先行词都是非常特殊的名词，其特殊之处就在于这些名词都有固定的介词与之搭配，比如 extent ( to the extent), means ( by the means), ease ( with ease), rate ( at the rate), pace ( at the pace) 等等，因此，如果遇到这样特殊的先行词，而且定语从句又是完整的句子，就可断定要看先行词来选介词——选择与先行词构成固定搭配的介词。
若先行词是普通的名词（如 book ），没有什么介词与其构成固定搭配，则一般可考虑看从句选介词——选择与定语从句中的某个动词、形容词或名词构成固定搭配的介词（如 He referred me to some reference books with which I am not very familiar . ）。
“看从句选介词”和“看先行词选介词”是两大重要的方法，可以帮助我们判断关系词前面的介词。所以笔者在上文中如此费尽笔墨，详尽论述，希望读者能认真体会，并掌握和灵活运用。下面请读者做练习，检验自己的掌握情况。
Exercise 2.7.1-2.7.2
1. 在下面空格中填入合适的介词，并将句子译成汉语。
1. It's a theory _______ which many economists subscribe, but in practice it often leaves railroads in position of determining which companies will flourish and which will fail.
2. With regard to Futurist poetry, however, the case is rather difficult, for whatever Futurist poetry may be--even admitting that the theory _______ which it is based may be right--it can hardly be classed as Literature.
3. Divorce sets in motion events _______ which an individual has little control, such as the reactions of spouses and children, as well as the uncertainty of new relationships.
4. Americans regard education as the means _______ which the inequalities among individuals are to be erased and _______ which every desirable end is to be achieved.
5. The pressure from spending in turn determines the ease _______ which prices increase.
6. Let me say how grateful I am to all those who supported me and supported the cause _______ which we have fought.
7. We must preserve the freedoms _______ which our ancestors fought.
8. Professors may not notice whether you attend a large lecture, but you could notice later on. Some professors use lectures to discuss material not found in the reading _______ which they will base an exam. Others stress key points. If you must miss a lecture, get the notes promptly.
9. Furthermore, humans have the ability to modify the environment _______ which they live, thus subjecting all other life forms to their own peculiar ideas and fancies.
10. Now since the assessment of intelligence is a comparative matter we must be sure that the scale _______ which we are comparing our subjects provides a "valid" or "fair" comparison.
11. Television is one of the means _______ which these feelings are created and conveyed--and perhaps never before has it served so much to connect different peoples and nations as in the recent events in Europe.
2. 辨别改错。
12. Many species can communicate an amazing (A) amount of information via (B) sound, information which (C) both the life of an individual and the continued (D) existence of the species may depend.
13. We are not conscious (A) of the extent of which (B) work provides the psychological satisfaction that (C) can make the difference (D) between a full and an empty life.
14. There is a (A) delicate balance of nature which (B) many square miles of ocean and vegetation and clean air are needed (C) to maintain only a relatively few (D) human beings.
接下来我们继续讨论判断“介词 + 关系代词”这一结构中的介词的其他方法。
以上分析的关于如何选用介词的两大规律是最常用的，而且所选用的介词往往都是固定搭配（比如 depend on 及 to the extent ）。但是，有时关系词前面的介词的选用完全是根据句子意思而定，不是固定搭配。也就是说，选用介词时，既不看前面的先行词，也不看后面的定语从句，而是要看句子的意思来确定。请看例句：
1 America's capacity utilization, for example, his historically high levels earlier this year, and its jobless rate (5.6% in August) has fallen below most estimates of the natural rate of unemployment--the rate below which inflation has taken off in the past.
妙语点睛 我们看到，这里的先行词为 rate 。如果按照我们在上面讨论过的介词的使用规律，那么这里应该用介词 at 。但是根据句子意思表达的要求，上句用了介词 below 。
精品译文 例如，美国的就业率在今年的前段时间创下了历史高水平，并且它的失业率（ 8 月份为 5.6% ）已降至低于大多数对于自然失业率的估测——在过去，当失业率低于自然失业率时，通货膨胀率已开始急剧上升。
2 There are things you would love to hear but you will never hear it from the person from whom you would like to hear it, but don't be deaf to hear it from the person who says it with heart.
妙语点睛 这里选用介词 from ，它既不与先行词 person 构成固定搭配，也不与定语从句中的某个词构成固定搭配，而是完全出于句子表意的需要。这与 from 这个词本身的意思密切相关，它表示“来自（某个地方）”。
精品译文 有些话你很想听到，然而却无法从你希望的那个人口中听到，但如果有其他人用心对你说出了那些话，不要对它充耳不闻。
读者也许会觉得这句话有些绕口，其实，它表达了类似于“我爱的人不爱我，爱我的人我不爱”这样的意思。
3 Our life is like a wheel with six spokes: family, financial, physical, mental, social and spiritual. The physical spoke is our health, without which nothing makes sense. The social spoke is that every individual and organization has social responsibility without which society starts dying.
妙语点睛 这里选用介词 without ，它既不与先行词 health 及 responsibility 构成固定搭配，也不与定语从句中的某个词构成固定搭配，而是完全出于句子表意的需要。这里用 without 表示“没有”。
精品译文 我们的生活就像一个车轮，由这样六个轴支撑：家庭、经济、身体、思想、社会以及精神。其中，身体之轴就是指我们的健康，没有了健康，任何事情都是毫无意义的。社会之轴就是指每个个体和组织都有自己的社会责任和义务，没有这些，社会就停滞不前。
表示所属关系或部分与整体关系的介词，比较常用的是 of 。我们先来看几个例句：
1 The company, of which Max Harrison was until recently the chairman , has made loss of three million pounds this year.
妙语点睛 这里的 of which 就相当于说 of the company ，于是整个定语从句相当于说 Max Harrison was until recently the chairman of the company ，所以这里的 of 表示所属关系，即 the chairman 是属于这个公司的。原定语从句可以改写为： the chairman of which was Max Harrison until recently 。
精品译文 这家公司今年亏损达三百万英镑，直到前不久 Max Harrison 还是它的董事长。
2 They're all groaning about soaring health budgets, the fastest-growing component of which are pharmaceutical costs.
妙语点睛 这里表示整体的是 health budgets ，在定语从句中用 which 来指代。表示部分的是 the fastest-growing component ，也即从句中的 pharmaceutical costs ，也就是说这个 costs 是 health budgets 的一部分。原从句可以改写为： of which pharmaceutical costs are the fastest-growing component 。由此看来，定语从句是一个倒装句，从句主语是 costs 。
精品译文 他们所有人都在抱怨高涨的医疗预算，其中增长最快的部分是药品费用。
3 The total cultivated area is 13, 000 acres, of which 10, 000 acres are irrigated fields.
妙语点睛 这里显然是说，在 13, 000 英亩中有 10, 000 英亩是可灌溉的田地，这表示部分与整体的关系。原定语从句可改写为： 10, 000 acres of which are irrigated fields 。
精品译文 可耕地的总面积为 13, 000 英亩，其中 10, 000 英亩为可灌溉粮田。
通过以上例句，我们可以总结出该句型的结构特点如下：
1. 该句型的结构往往是“不定代词 / 数量词 / 形容词的比较级或最高级 +of which/whom ”，用来表示数量或某种特点。具体来讲，在介词 of 前面常出现的词包括： all, each, both, either, neither, none, little, few, many, much, some, most, any, the majority, half, several, a number, half, none 以及数字和形容词的最高级等等。
2. 值得注意的是，这里 of 前面的成分都可以后移至定语从句中。比如上面的例句，我们既可以说 10, 000 acres of which ，也可以说 of which 10, 000 acres 。
再比如：
4 This kind of support, like all government support, requires decisions about the appropriate recipients of funds. Decisions based on utility as opposed to lack of utility are straightforward. But a decision among projects none of which has immediate utility is more difficult.
妙语点睛 这里的 none of which 相当于 none of the projects ，即 which 指 projects 。可以说成： of which none has immediate...
精品译文 这种支持，如同所有的政府支持一样，需要决定谁适合作为基金的受益人。这最终要由效益来决定，可是在那些都看不到近期效益的项目中来决定谁是受益人，这就更难了。
我们再来看下面的练习：
5 Living in the central Australian desert has its problems, ______ obtaining water is not the least.
A. of which
B. for what
C. as
D. whose
正确答案 A 。
妙语点睛 这里的 obtaining water 是众多 problems 中的一种，注意这里 problems 用的是复数，表明有很多问题。所以，这里表示整体的是： problems ，表示部分的是： obtaining water 。原从句可以改写为： obtaining water of which is not the least 。
精品译文 生活在澳大利亚中部沙漠地区会有很多问题，其中最大的麻烦就是取水问题。
6 The Social Security Retirement Program is made up of two trust funds, could go penniless by next year.
A. the larger one
B. the larger of which
C. the largest one
D. the largest of which
正确答案 B 。
妙语点睛 这里的 of 前面用了比较级 the larger ，表示 the larger fund 。原定语从句可以改写为： of which the larger could go penniless by next year 。
精品译文 这个“社会安全退休项目”由两支基金组成，其中较大的那支基金到明年可能就会破产。
关系代词前面的介词有时与固定的介宾短语结构有关，比如 in this case, in one's honor 和 with one's help 等，它们若出现在定语从句中，则会相应地变成 in which case, in whose honor 和 with whose help 。所以，这里的关系代词 which/whose 前面的介词 in/with 是从原来的短语中继承过来的。请看例句：
1 He may be late, in which case we should wait for him.
妙语点睛 这里的 in which case 就是由短语 in this case 变过来，这里 which 指前面整个句子 "he may be late" 。
精品译文 他可能要迟到，如果是这样，我们就应该等等他。
2 He was a great writer, in whose honor this bronze statue was built.
妙语点睛 这里的 in whose honor 就是来自于 in one's honor ，表示“纪念某人”。
精品译文 他是一位伟大的作家，特此设立铜像来纪念他。
3 We extended our warm welcome to the visiting delegation in whose honor a grand banquet was given.
精品译文 我们对到访的代表团表示热烈欢迎，并设盛宴款待。
我们再来看下面这个例子，这是电影 The Queen （《女王》）里首相布莱尔与英国女王的一段对白。这部电影描写了由戴安娜王妃之死引起的英国王室的信誉危机。
P. M.: Good morning, Your Majesty. Sorry to disturb. But I was just wondering whether you have seen any of today's papers.
Queen: We've managed to look at one or two. Yes.
P. M.: In which case my next question would be whether you felt some kind of response might be necessary.
Queen: No. I believe a few over-eager editors are doing their best to sell newspapers...and it would be a mistake to dance to their tune.
妙语点睛 我们看到，布莱尔在这里用了 in which case 这样的定语从句形式。如果把女王的上一句话和布莱尔的这句话结合起来，就是一个完整的“主句 + 定语从句”的结构，即 We've managed to look at one or two, in which case my next question would be whether you felt some kind of response might be necessary. 这里的 which case 指的就是女王说的 We've managed to look at one or two.
另外，从布莱尔的措辞来看，比如他用了 I was just wondering ... ， my next question would...felt...might 这样的情态动词的过去时，表明了首相布莱尔在措辞上非常小心；而女王则用一般现在时，说话直截了当，显示了君临天下的威仪。
精品译文 首相：早上好，陛下。抱歉打扰了。只是不知您是否已经看了今天的报纸。
女王：倒是看了一两份。是的。
首相：既然这样，我还要问的是，您是否觉得有必要做出某种回应。
女王：不。我想只是几个热情过度的编辑在全力地为他们的报纸打开销路……我们如果被他们牵着鼻子走就错了。
“介词 + 关系代词”这种结构的定语从句往往还伴随着从句采用倒装结构。具体的结构就是“介词 + 关系代词 + 从句谓语 + 从句主语”，即一个将整个谓语放在主语前面的全部倒装结构。关于定语从句的倒装结构，我们在前面提到过。比如这个例句：
1 They're all groaning about soaring health budgets, the fastest-growing component of which are pharmaceutical costs.
该定语从句可以改写为： of which pharmaceutical costs are the fastest-growing component ，所以定语从句的主语是复数名词短语 pharmaceutical costs ，而不是单数，这就是为什么从句谓语用 are 而不是 is 的原因。
采用倒装的原因往往是因为定语从句的主语较复杂，所以按照英语的尾重原则而后置了。我们再来分析下面的例句：
2 This is the world out of which grows the hope, for the first time in history, of a society where there will be freedom from want and freedom from fear.
图解难句
妙语点睛 这个句子有一定的难度。第一个定语从句 out of which grows the hope, for the first time in history, of a society 修饰 world 。在这个定语从句里有一个倒装结构和分隔结构。分隔结构是在 the hope 和 of a society 中间插入了短语 for the first time in history ，也就是说，如果没有这个插入语，就是 the hope of a society ，表示“希望建立这样一个社会”。整个短语 the hope, for the first time in history, of a society 就表示“在人类历史上，首次希望建立这样一个社会”，这个名词短语是作定语从句的主语。定语从句的谓语是 grows ， out of which 在定语从句中作状语，所以整个定语从句是一个全部倒装结构。正常语序应该是： the hope, for the first time in history, of a society grows out of which (out of the world) 。第二个定语从句 where there will be freedom from want and freedom from fear 修饰 society ，说明是什么样的社会。这里有个难点是如何翻译 freedom from want and freedom from fear 这个短语。这里 freedom from 来自于形容词短语 free from ，表示“免除，没有”。另外名词 want 表示“贫困”。因此，整个短语我们可以译成“摆脱贫困，摆脱恐惧”。
精品译文 在这个世界，人类首次希望建立这样一个社会——在那里，他们将会摆脱贫困，摆脱恐惧。
3 The intellectual process I learned in that class is also life's process, because every life is a great work with all the richness of its gifts and the wealth of its possibilities. When you graduate from here, you exit with thousands of pages of personal text on which are inscribed beliefs and values shaped by years of education, family interactions, relationships, experiences. And buried within those thousands of pages is your personal truth, your essence.
妙语点睛 这段话来自惠普公司总裁在一次斯坦福大学的毕业典礼上对毕业生们的演讲。定语从句 on which are inscribed beliefs and values shaped by years of education, family interactions, relationships, experiences 修饰名词短语 thousands of pages of personal text 。该从句的主语是 beliefs and values shaped by years of education, family interactions, relationships, experiences ，谓语是 are inscribed ， on which 作地点状语。所以，整个定语从句是一个全部倒装结构，正常语序是： beliefs and values shaped by years of education, family interactions, relationships, experiences are inscribed on which (on thousands of pages of personal text) 。
精品译文 我在那门课中所学的掌握知识的过程，也是生活的过程。因为每种人生都是一部伟大的著作，其中包含丰富的才智和美好的可能。当你从这里毕业时，你会带着数千页的人生教科书走出校门，在这本教科书里铭刻着经过多年教育、家庭的作用、社会关系以及个人经历所形成的信念和价值观。而真实的你和你的精华就深藏在这数千页记录中。
上面讨论的“介词 + 关系代词”这一定语从句结构，可以简化成不定式，于是就有了“介词 +which+to do ”的结构。请看例句：
1
1) The farmer used wood to build a house
in which he could
store grains.
2) The farmer used wood to build a house
in which to store
grains.
妙语点睛 由 1 ）句简化为 2 ）句，先是把定语从句 in which he could store grains 中的主语 he 省去（因为 he 与主句主语 the farmer 一致，所以可以省略），然后把情态动词 could 替换为不定式 to （因为不定式具有情态意义），于是便得到 in which to store grains 。
精品译文 这位农夫用一些木材建造了一座房子，在那里储存粮食。
其实，我们还可以进一步简化上面的例句 2 ），就是把关系词 which 去掉，此时就必须把介词 in 移到句末去，所以就成为：
3 ） The farmer used wood to build a house to store grains in .
比较上面 1 ）、 2 ）、 3 ）三个句子，我们发现，在例句 1 ）中，完全是一个定语从句（ in which he could store grains ）作后置定语，修饰 house ；在例句 2 ）中，则是一个“半定语从句半不定式”的混合形式（ in which to store grains ）作后置定语，修饰 house ；在例句 3 ）中，则完全是一个不定式（ to store grains in ）作后置定语，修饰 house 。也就是说，例句 2 ）中的后置定语 in which to store grains 是处在定语从句和不定式之间的一个过渡形式。
需要提醒大家的是，在使用这一结构时我们应注意以下几点：
1 ）“介词 + 关系代词”不能用一个关系副词来替换。比如不能说 The farmer used wood to build a house where to store grains. *
2 ）有介词、有关系代词时，不能将介词置于句末。比如不能说 The farmer used wood to build a house which to store grains in . *
3 ）若没有介词，我们不能采用“半定语从句半不定式”的混合形式作后置定语。比如不能说 I can't think of anybody whom to invite . * 而要说 I can't think of anybody to invite . 或者 I can't think of anybody who I should invite .
2 We moved to the country so that the kids would have a garden .
A. in which to play
B. to play with
C. to play in
D. to play
E. where to play
F. which to play
G. which to play in
H. in which they could play
I. which they could play in
由以上分析我们可知，此题的正确答案有： A, C, H, I 。
所以，我们看到，带有“介词 + 关系代词”的定语从句可以有四种写法，比如：
3
1) She is not a person
who you can rely on
.
2) She is not a person
on whom you can rely
.
3) She is not a person
on whom to rely
.
4) She is not a person
to rely on
.
4
1) This is a good instrument
which people can measure vibration with
.
2) This is a good instrument
with which people can measure vibration
.
3) This is a good instrument
with which to measure vibration
.
4) This is a good instrument
to measure vibration with
.
在“介词 + 关系代词”这一节中，我们共用了七个小节详尽地论述了关系词前面的介词的使用规律。我们比较系统地介绍了五大规律，它们是：
规律
1
：看从句选介词——介词与定语从句中的动词、形容词或名词构成固定搭配；
规律
2
：看先行词选介词——介词与先行词构成固定搭配；
规律
3
：看句义选介词——为了意思表达的需要而使用特定的介词；
规律
4
：表示所属关系或部分整体关系时用介词
of
；
规律
5
：固定的介宾结构。
为了让读者更好地记住和理解这些规律，我们下面作一个类比。
我们不妨把“关系代词”和“介词”看作是恋爱的双方，“介词 + 关系代词”的结合就相当于男女双方谈恋爱。说到男女谈恋爱，现在笔者能想到的方式无非有三种：一种是指腹为婚，一种是媒妁之言，一种是自由恋爱。
规律 5 就相当于关系词和介词是指腹为婚，因为关系词前面的介词是由关系词尚未“出生”前的另外一个短语规定了的，比如 in which case 里的介词 in 是由 in this case 这个短语已经决定了的。
规律 1 、 2 、 4 就相当于关系词与介词的结合是通过媒人的牵线搭桥认识的。这里的“媒人”就相当于先行词或定语从句中的动词 / 名词 / 形容词，或表示部分与整体关系的不定代词，通过它们牵线搭桥，关系词和介词才走到了一起。
规律 3 就相当于关系词与介词是自由恋爱，因为选用什么介词完全是与上下文的意思有关，而不是由别的因素决定。这就相当于关系词与介词情投意合，自己走到一起的。
在上述五大规律中，笔者重点阐述了“看从句选介词”（见 2.7.1 ）和“看先行词选介词”（见 2.7.2 ）这两大判断介词的重要方法。
此外，我们还讨论了与“介词 + 关系代词”有关的两大结构，即“介词 + 关系代词 + 谓语 + 主语”的倒装结构（见 2.7.6 ）和“介词 + 关系代词 +to do ”的不定式结构（见 2.7.7 ）。为了加深对这些规律的理解和应用，请读者做下面的练习。
Exercise 2.7
1. 把下列简单句合并成定语从句。
1. He is the man and I think you can depend on him.
2. When television was first introduced, it would affect society to the extent and the extent could not have been foreseen.
3. It is useful to be able to predict the extent and to the extent a price change will affect supply and demand.
4. Public demonstrations are an effective means and by the means the people can bring social inequalities to the attention of government officials.
5. Americans regard education as the means and by this means the inequalities among individuals are to be erased and by this means every desirable end is to be achieved.
6. A frequent criticism of most online companies has been the snail's pace and at this pace they deliver their products.
2. 选择最佳答案。
7. When television was first introduced, the extent _______ it would affect society could not have been foreseen.
A. what
B. to which
C. to that
D. which
8. TV's influence should be measured not only in terms of immediate change in behavior, but also by the extent _______ it develops certain views of life.
A. to which
B. so that
C. in which
D. with which
9. It was luck again, according to Nina, that brought her the role in Mute Wife _______ she is best known.
A. as which
B. which
C. for which
D. to which
10. Many critics agree that the novel is an art form ______ women excel.
A. in which
B. to which
C. of which
D. by which
11. The goals ______ he had fought all his life no longer seemed important to him.
A. against which
B. for which
C. which
D. for that
12. Public demonstrations are an effective means ______ the people can bring social inequalities to the attention of government officials.
A. by this
B. with which
C. by which
D. and which
13. We assume that the meanings of these underwater sounds are similar to those ______ we are familiar on land.
A. to which
B. with whom
C. with that
D. with which
14. Dolphins might be trained to cooperate with fishermen and help them by finding, tracking, herding, or even catching fish — ______ activities dolphins are expert.
A. at all of these
B. in all of which
C. all of which
D. in all of what
15. The buzzard can watch high in the sky the ground for signs of the waste and the dead animals ______ it feeds.
A. which
B. on what
C. in which
D. on which
16. She spent all evening talking about her latest book, ______ none of us had ever heard.
A. in that
B. in which
C. of what
D. of which
17. Agriculture was a step in human progress ______ which subsequently there was not anything comparable until our own machine age.
A. to
B. for
C. in
D. from
18. Oil, ______ there are several different types, is used for many purposes by countries all over the world.
A. which
B. in which
C. by which
D. of which
19. Many countries face some serious problems of land use, ______ result from population growth and the demands of modern technological living.
A. most which
B. which most
C. of most which
D. most of which
20. It is useful to be able to predict the extent ______ which a price change will affect supply and demand.
A. from
B. with
C. to
D. for
21. By bringing about a great leap in the speed and ease ______ information moves from place to place, the Internet has greatly accelerated the rate of scientific and technological changes.
A. with which
B. which
C. to which
D. by which
22. We need a chairman ______.
A. for whom everyone has confidence
B. in whom everyone has confidence
C. who everyone has confidence of
D. whom everyone has confidence on
23. A survey was carried out on the death rate of new-born babies in that region, ______ the results were surprising.
A. as
B. which
C. what
D. of which
24. The classroom is a natural environment ______ and apply the concept of community service to reduce local crime problems.
A. which to introduce
B. to introduce
C. in which to introduce
D. which to introduce
25. The science of medicine, ______ progress has been very rapid lately, is perhaps the most important of all the sciences.
A. in which
B. to which
C. with which
D. which
26. We were struck by the extent ______ which teachers' decisions served the interests of the school rather than those of the students. (1996-6-CET-4)
A. to
B. for
C. in
D. with
27. I've kept up a friendship with a girl whom I was at school ______ twenty years ago.
A. about
B. since
C. till
D. with
28. There was a teapot fashioned like a Chinese duck, out of ______ open mouth the tea was supposed to come.
A. which
B. its
C. whose
D. that
29. The course normally attracts 20 students per year, ______ up to half will be from overseas.
A. in which
B. for whom
C. with which
D. of whom
30. You will want two trees about ten feet apart, from ______ to suspend your tent.
A. there
B. them
C. which
D. where
31. The professor can hardly find sufficient grounds ______ his argument in favor of the new theory.
A. which to base on
B. on which to base
C. to base on which
D. which to be based on
32. This is an exciting area of study, and one ______ which new applications are being discovered almost daily.
A. from
B. by
C. in
D. through
33. This kind of support, like all government support, requires decisions about the appropriate recipients of funds. Decisions based on utility as opposed to lack of utility are straightforward. But a decision among projects ______ which none has immediate utility is more difficult.
A. with
B. of
C. at
D. in
3. 翻译下列短文或短句，认真体会关系词前边的介词用法。
34. A friend is not just someone to whom you say "Hello". A friend is a tender shoulder on which you can softly cry. A friend is a well into which you can pour all your troubles down. A friend is a hand which pulls you up from darkness and despair when all your other "so-called friends" have helped to put you there. A true friend is an ally who can't be moved or bought, a voice which keeps your name alive when others have forgot. But most of all a friend is a heart, a strong and sturdy wall, for from the hearts of friends there comes the greatest love of all!
35. When we indulge in self-pity, we rob the poor and the suffering of that which is theirs by right and waste it on ourselves, to whom it does more harm than good.
36. By the manner in which they quarrel, they manage to re-sure each other that they value the relationship.
37. Every existing method for mine detection has conditions under which it will work very well and conditions under which it will fail.