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1.Define the following terms:
1) historical linguistics
【考点提示】 本题考查的是历史语言学。
Historical linguistics is the study of the change in individual language and in languages generally. Its main concerns: to describe and account for observed changes in particular languages; to reconstruct the history of languages and determine their relatedness, grouping them into language families; to develop general theories about how and why language changes; to describe the history of communities; to study the history of words. For example, it is generally accepted that the history of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English, and Modern English.
2) pragmatics
【考点提示】 本题考查语用学的定义。
Pragmatics is the study of the language in use. It's the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
3) emotive function of language
【考点提示】 本题考查语言的情感功能。
When language is used to change the emotional states of an audience or used to express the speaker's emotions or attitudes towards something or some person, it is called the emotive function of language.
4) recreational function
【考点提示】 本题考查的是语言的娱乐功能。
The recreational function of language means that no one will deny the use of language for the pure joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.
5) arbitrariness at the syntactic level
【考点提示】 本题考查句法层面的任意性。
According to systematic-functionalists and American functionalists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. There is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings of the events. That is to say, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as this kind of order is concerned. The structural order represents human beings' cognitive order.
6) metalanguage
【考点提示】 本题考查对元语言的认识。
A metalanguage is a language used to make statements about statements in another language (the object language).
2.Multiple Choice:
1) C本题考查语言运用的定义。
2) D本题考查语言的二重性特征。底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。底层结构由一些本身没有意义的语音组成但是它们可以各自组合成有意义的单位，从而形成了有独特、确定意义的上层单位。
3) A本题考查习语与语言的约定俗成性。习语是相沿已久的、约定俗成的具有完整而独特意义的词语。
4) D本题考查语言的移位性特征。
5) D本题考查语言的娱乐性功能。
6) D本题考查语言学涵盖的五个方面。即音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学。
3.Word Completion:
1) interpersonal
【考点提示】 本题考查语言的人际功能。
2) Displacement
【考点提示】 本题考查语言的本质特征之一，移位性。
3) phatic
【考点提示】 本题考查语言的寒暄功能。
4) Prescriptive, descriptive
【考点提示】 本题考查规定性语言学和描写性语言学。
5) competence, performance
【考点提示】 本题考查乔姆斯基关于语言能力和语言表现的区别。
6) Psycholinguistics
【考点提示】 本题考查心理语言学。
7) Phonetics
【考点提示】 本题考查语音学定义。
8) Semantics
【考点提示】 本题考查语义学定义。
9) creativity
【考点提示】 本题考查语言的创造性。因为语言的二重性和递归性使语言具有多产
性，因此语言具有创造性。
10) Displacement
【考点提示】 本题考查语言的移位性特征。移位性是指语言能够指称说话人即时情境以外的语境。
4.True or False Questions:
1) F本题考查著名语言学家菲尔迪南·德·索绪尔。瑞士语言学家菲尔南迪·德·索绪尔是现代语言学的重要奠基者，也是结构主义的开创者之一。后人称他为现代语言学之父，而不是语言学之父。
2) T本题考查语言的定义和影响语言交际的因素。
3) F本题考查语言的特征，句子中反映的是语言的任意性而不是移位性。
4) F本题考查语言的功能，句子中反映的是语言的信息功能而不是娱乐性功能。
5) F本题考查的是心理语言学。心理语言学是语言学和心理学的交叉学科，是对语言心理方面的研究。通常研究的是与语言行为相关的心理状态和思维活动。
5.Short Essay Questions:
1)【考点提示】 本题考查语言的区别性特征。
【解题思路】 分别说明语言的区别性特征并举例说明。
【参考答案】
Design features refer to the features that define our human languages. They include arbitrariness, duality, creativity and displacement. (1) Arbitrariness means that the forms of language signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. A good example is the fact that different languages have different words for the same object. (2 points) (2) Duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. (2 points) (3) Creativity refers to the features that one is able to construct and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in his native language, including those that one has never heard before. Creativity is contributed to the duality and recursiveness of language. (2 points) (4) Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Thus we can refer to Confucius and Bush at the moment of communication, but the former lived thousands of years ago and the latter lives far away from us. (2 points)
2)【考点提示】 本题考查语言和言语的区别。
【解题思路】 首先分别解释语言和言语的定义，然后再对比分析二者的不同。
【参考答案】
This distinction is made by Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.
(1) Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. It is abstract and is not language people actually use. It is relatively stable and does not change frequently. (2 points) (2) Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is the concrete use of conventions and the application of the rules. It is concrete and refers to the natural occurring of language events. It varies from person to person and from situation to situation. (2 points) (3) Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect for linguistic study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation and what linguists should do is abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of linguistic study. Saussure took a sociolinguistic view of language and his opinion of langue is matter of social convention. (1 point)
3)【考点提示】 本题考查乔姆斯基提出的语言能力和语言运用的区别。
【解题思路】 首先说明语言能力和语言运用的概念，然后再解释语言使用在实际应用中出现的误差，因此需要语言能力制定标准来规范语言使用。二者是语言学中的一对重要区分概念，而乔姆斯基更倾向于语言能力。
【参考答案】
Competence and performance are proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called linguistic competence. Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view. (4 points)
According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Despite his perfect knowledge of his own language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g. slips of the tongue, and unnecessary pauses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psycological factors such as stress, anxiety, and embarrassment. Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he can not tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguistics is to discover and specify these rules. Therefore, competence and performance are important distinctions in linguistics. (6 points)
4)【考点提示】 本题考查语言能力和交际能力的区别。语言能力概念由乔姆斯基提出，指一名语言使用者对于语言规则系统的潜在意识，与具体环境中语言的实际使用没有任何关系。交际能力是 Hymes提出的，他认为语言学习者不仅要知道句子在语法上是合格的，而且要知道句子是得体的。
【参考答案】
According to Chomsky, a language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called linguistic competence. A speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Despite his perfect knowledge of his own language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g. slips of the tongue, and unnecessary pauses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psycological factors such as stress, anxiety, and embarrassment. Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and apples them in actual use, he can not tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguistics is to discover and specify these rules. (5 points)
According to Hymes, communicative competence is the aspect of competence that enables the speakers to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts. Communicative competence is relative, not absolute, and depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved. Communicative competence includes not only the ability to form correct sentences but to use them at appropriate times. The basic idea of communicative competence is the ability to use language appropriately, both receptively and productively, in real situations. (6 points)
Communicative competence can be defined, in terms of three components. The first is grammatical competence, which involves the accurate use of words and the second structure is sociolinguistic competence. It enables the learner to know how to speak properly according to the social context. The third is called strategic competence, the ability to overcome potential communication problems in interaction. (4 points)
5)【考点提示】 本题考查考生对语言的区别性特征之一“任意性”的理解。要求考生在理解概念基本含义的基础上，全面解释语言任意性的基本内容与特征。语言任意性是相对的，考生要举例说明语言任意性的各个层面以及其非任意性的层面。
【解题思路】 首先解释 arbitrariness的定义，然后解释词层面上的任意性，并说明分句之间的任意性。接下来解释词的非任意性，但要说明这种情况比较少，同时说明分句之间的关系有时是与现实世界相对应的，它们的排列顺序是有理据的，因而不是任意的。
【参考答案】
Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons has used it for a pig. Language is therefore arbitrary. On the other hand, for the same object, different sounds can be used to express the same meaning. For instances, “book /buk/” in English is “书 ” in Chinese, but“本”in Japanese. It can be concluded that, in most cases, meanings and their corresponding sounds are arbitrary. Besides, syntax is sometimes also arbitrary, for example, we can say “He came in and sat down” or “He sat down after he came in”. (6 points)
But language is not absolutely arbitrary, because there are cases where there are, at least seem to be, some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words like “bang”，“crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary either, “snow” and “storm” are arbitrary or unmotivated, while “snowstorm” is less so. Syntax is sometimes less arbitrary. For example, we cannot say “He sat down and came in” but can say that “He came in and sat down”，because the sequence of clauses and the real happenings are corresponding to each other, in other words, they are motivated. So we can say “arbitrariness” of language is a matter of degree. (4 points)
6)【考点提示】 本题考查的是乔姆斯基提出的语言运用和语言能力的差异性。
【解题思路】 首先解释语言运用和语言能力的概念，再说明二者的区别。
【参考答案】
This fundamental distinction is discussed by the American linguist Chomsky in his Aspect of the Theory of Syntax. A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence, while performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an finitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Despite his perfect knowledge of his language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment. Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, and looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
7)【考点提示】 本题考查的是语言的情感功能。
【解题思路】 首先解释情感功能的概念，再加以举例说明。
【参考答案】
The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or someone or somebody. It is a means of getting rid of nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art of scenery; conventional words/phrases, e.g. God, My damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.
This function is also discussed under the term—expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others. For example, a man may say ouch! after striking a fingernail with a hammer, or he may utter damn when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment.
8)【考点提示】 本题考查宏观语言学的概念。宏观语言学指语言学和其他领域之间的关系。
【解题思路】 首先解释宏观语言学的概念，然后再举例，如社会语言学、计算机语言学。
【参考答案】
Macrolinguistics is a field of study concerned with language in its broadest sense and including cultural and behavioral features associated with language. (2 points)
1) Sociolinguistics studies the relations between language and society.
2) Psycholinguistics is the study of language and mind.
3) Computational linguistics is an approach to linguistics which employs mathematical techniques, often with the help of a computer.
4) Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. (3 points)