My first examples describe individuals who vainly try to assume the attributes of another (and presumably superior) group, only to be exposed, subjected to ridicule, or even put to death. In “The Ass and the Lapdog” (no. 32) an ass is severely beaten when he tries to imitate a pet dog by jumping into his master’s lap. The fable ends with the ass’s recognition of his own foolish behavior. In his own words, “Why could I not be satisfied with my natural and honorable position, without wishing to imitate the ridiculous antics of that useless little lapdog?” Similarly, in “The Monkey and the Camel” (no. 164) a camel tried to dance like a monkey, “but he cut such a ridiculous figure as he plunged about, and made such a grotesque exhibition of his ungainly person, that the beasts all fell upon him with ridicule and drove him away.”

Numerous fables deride individuals who attempt to change their appearance by dressing in the clothes (or skin) of another. Such charades fail almost from the beginning. “The Ass in the Lion’s Skin” (no. 61), “The Jackdaw and the Pigeons” (no. 70), and “The Vain Jackdaw” (no. 84) all conclude with the disguised individuals quickly being exposed and ridiculed. A character’s altered appearance does not need to represent a desired change of identity. In “The Mice and the Weasels” (no. 96) the mice soldiers who before battle decorate themselves with large plumes are easily captured and killed by their opponents.

Fables about trying to change one’s appearance often have racial (even racist) overtones. In two stories, “The Crow and the Swan” (no. 148) and “The Blackamoor” (no. 105), attempts are made to wash black individuals white, with predictably unhappy results. These particular stories take on a special poignancy when one recalls that Aesop himself was said to have had very dark-colored skin.

Failure to know and to accept oneself as one is does not always manifest itself in altered appearance. Often it is vain, pretentious behavior alone that exposes the character to ridicule. In “The Eagle, the Jackdaw, and the Shepherd” (no. 170) a jackdaw tries to perform like an eagle. In “The Crow and the Raven” (no. 259) a crow imitates a raven. In “The Ox and the Frog” (no. 100) a mother frog tries to puff herself up to the size of an ox. In “The Wolf and His Shadow” (no. 238) a wolf sees his long shadow when the sun is low in the sky, perceives himself to be very large, then struts about in a manner befitting a giant. And in “The Tortoise and the Eagle” (no. 81) a tortoise tries to learn to fly. All these attempts end with ridicule or death for the pretenders.

Aesopic fables reflect a society structured by class and privilege, and although the stories seem to have come from the lower classes (remember that both Aesop and Phaedrus were reputed to have been born as slaves), they do little to encourage an individual to rise above his or her original station in life. To the contrary, a number of fables illustrate the moral “Better servitude with safety than freedom with danger”—for example, “The Fox Who Served a Lion” (no. 253) and “The Pack Ass, the Wild Ass, and the Lion” (no. 201). Similarly, in “The Ass and His Masters” (no. 200) a beast of burden, overworked and abused by his owner, prays for a new master, only to find himself in a worse situation, then prays again for another new master, and his situation worsens again. Finally, in “The Runaway Slave” (no. 270) the fugitive is soon recaptured, and we are given to believe that he too will henceforth be much worse off than before his attempted escape.