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一、时态和语态
（一）动词的时态
英语中不同时间发生的动作或情况要用不同的形式表示，称为时态。英语中共有16种时态，它们是：
时态测试主要要求考生掌握几种常见但易错的时态：一般时态——一般现在时、一般过去时、一般将来时；进行时态——现在进行时、过去进行时、将来进行时、完成进行时；完成时态——现在完成时、过去完成时、将来完成时。
一般时态
英语中的一般时态表示现在、过去或将来的动作或状态。
1.一般现在时
（1）一般现在时表示经常或反复发生的动作，现在的情况或状态和永恒的真理，中文常用“经常、总是、有时、偶尔、每天（月、年）”等标志性的时间状语的出现，英文中用usually, often, always, sometimes, frequently, occasionally, every year, every week等。例如，
The nation's population continues to rise at the speed of 12 millions per year.（2006年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第91题）
It's my mother who keeps encouraging me not to lose heart when I have difficulties in my studies.（2011年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
这两句话的主句都是一般现在时，在英语的一般现在时态中，中国的学生一定要注意，如果主语是第三人称单数形式，一般情况下谓语动词要加-s，这是中英文之间一个很重要的差别。而且要注意如果有并列谓语或从句出现时，也要注意其中动词的词形变化。例如，
原文：长江发源于青藏高原的唐古拉山脉，自西向东注入东海。
例句分析：原句中出现了“发源于”和“注入”两个谓语动词的并列，而根据常识，一条河流一般不会刚刚发源就注入大海，所以在这两个动词之间，应该是省略了一个动词“流淌”，即原句应理解为“长江发源于青藏高原的唐古拉山脉，自西向东（流淌），最后注入东海”。因此，此句译文为：
译文：The Yangtze river originates in the Tanggula Mountains of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, flows from the west to the east and discharges into the East China Sea.
在译文中，我们要注意originate, flow，和discharge都是主语的谓语，时态统一为一般现在时态，且主语是第三人称单数形式，因此，三个动词的词形都有了变化。
（2）在时间状语从句或条件状语从句中，通常用一般现在时代替将来时。例如，
Scientists agree that it will be a long time before we find the cure for cancer.（在我们找到治愈癌症的方法之前）（2009年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
此句中谓语动词agree后面接了一个宾语从句。宾语从句是由主句和一个时间状语从句构成的。根据题干，无论宾语从句的主句还是从句都是将来时态。所以，before引起的时间状语从句应该用一般现在时态代替将来时态。
2.一般过去时
（1）表示过去发生的动作或存在的状态，在句子中常会出现表示过去的时间状语。例如，Though a skilled worker, he was fired by the company（他被公司解雇了）last week because of the economic crisis.
例句解析：此句题干中含有明确的、表示过去的时间状语last week，因此整句话的时态应是一般过去时态。
（2）表示过去习惯性的动作。一般过去时也可以与表示经常性的词语连用，表示过去习惯性的动作。例如，
He always arrived at the meeting room first.他总是第一个到达会议室You used to smoke a pipe, didn't you？你过去一向是抽烟斗的，对不对？
经典考题2：The last half of the nineteenth century_____________the steady improvement in the means of travel.（1998年6月大学英语四级考试第41题）
A）has witnessed
B）was witnessed
C）witnessed
D）is witnessed
考题分析：本题题干中是以时间作为主语的，这种句式也符合中文的行文习惯，因此考生也不会感到很陌生。The last half of the nineteenth century（19世纪后半叶）是明显的一般过去时态，而且主语与动词之间也没有动宾的关系，因此C）witnessed是正确答案。本题句意是：19世纪后半叶见证了出行方式的不断进步。
（3）在叙述性文字（如小说、故事等）中常常会使用这个时态。例如，
原文：中国结（the Chinese knot）最初是由手工艺人发明的。在古代，人们用它来记录事件。
译文：The Chinese knot was originally invented by the craftsman.In ancient times, it was used for recording events.
例句分析：例子原文中叙述中国结的历史，由时间状语“最初”和“在古代”可以推知两句话的时态均为一般过去时。第一句话中有明显的被动语态的标志“由……（所）……”结构，因此此句选用被动语态。而第二句话的主语是泛指的“人们”，没有具体指出是哪些人，因此，也选用被动语态来翻译。再如，
原文：相传，中国的一位帝王于五千年前发现了茶，并用来治病，在明清（the Ming and Qing Dynasties）期间，茶馆遍布全国，饮茶在6世纪传到日本，但直到18世纪才传到欧美。
译文：There is a legend that 5，000 years ago tea was found by a Chinese emperor and was used to cure illnesses.During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, tea houses were widespread throughout the country.Tea-drinking was spread to Japan in the 6th century but it wasn't spread to Europe and America until the 18th century.
例句分析：原文是对茶的历史及传播的介绍性文字。汉语原文中相继出现“于五千年前”“在明清时期”“在6世纪”“直到18世纪”四个表示过去的时间状语，因此，整个段落选用了一般过去时进行翻译。
3.一般将来时
表示将来要发生的事情或存在的状态，一般要与表示将来的时间状语连用。例如，
We will have a test tomorrow morning.
除了一般将来时，还可以用下面的方式来表示将来的情况：
1）be going to结构，在口语中广泛使用，表示打算做某事或即将发生的事情。
They are going to have a picnic next weekend at the central park.
2）be to+v表示计划安排将要做的事。例如，
The final examinations are to start next week.
3）be about to+v表示马上发生的事情。
Hurry up！The bus is about to leave.
4）be due to+v表示预先安排好的、必定要发生的事，意义上接近be arranged to。例如，
The professor is due to deliver a speech at 4 o'clock this afternoon.教师将在下午四点钟做一个讲座。
The train is due to leave at 10.
进行时态
进行时态表示现在、过去或将来一个时间点或一个时间段内正在进行的或持续进行的动作。
1.现在进行时
（1）表示现在正在进行的动作，常与now, right now, at the moment, at present等连用。
例1：The telephone is ringing.Would you answer it, please？电话铃响了，请你接一下，好吗？
（2）表示现阶段经常发生的动作，常与always, continually, constantly等连用，在语气上显示说话人对于这种情况的不满或是赞美。例如，
John is always making such stupid mistakes.
She is always thinking about others.
（3）现在进行时还可用来表示将来的动作，尤其在口语中，多指已经计划安排好的事。常用的有：go, come, leave, start, arrive, return等。
They are leaving for Shanghai tomorrow morning.
2.过去进行时
过去进行时表示过去某时的一个动作正在进行，这个过去的时间可以由一个状语来表示。例如，
I was busy yesterday. I was preparing for a lecture about Information Technology.
They met each other when they were studying at the university.
过去进行时还能表示过去的习惯或反复的动作，常与always, continually, constantly等词连用，带有一定的感情色彩。例如，
Whenever I visited him, he was always complaining about his job.
3.将来进行时
将来进行时主要表示将来某一时刻正在进行的动作，或表示要在将来某一时刻开始，并继续下去的动作。
This time tomorrow, we'll be lying on the warm sand and enjoying the Florida sunshine.
将来进行时还可以表示将来已经安排好的事情或预计会发生的事情。例如：
I'll be seeing you tomorrow morning.
They will be taking the exam next Wednesday.
完成时态
完成时态通常表示已经发生的事情或已经完成的动作。它可分为：
1.现在完成时
（1）现在完成时用来表示对目前仍有影响的，刚刚完成的动作，常与already, recently, just, yet等词连用；或者表示过去某一时刻发生的情况，一直持续到现在，甚至还可能继续下去，常与for, since, how long等词连用。中文中往往出现“已”“已经”“过”等词语。例如，
Have you seen her recently？
I haven't had my supper yet.
How long have you known each other？
I have known them since my childhood.
真题再现：
原文：中国结（the Chinese knot）经过数百年不断的改造，已经成为一种优雅多彩的艺术和工艺。
译文：After several hundred years'continuous improvement, the Chinese knot has evolved into an elegant and colorful art and craft.
真题解析：根据原文第二个分句中出现的“已经”一词表明此句应使用现在完成时态来翻译。
原文：这种形式的手工艺代代相传，现在已经在中国和世界各地越来越受欢迎。
译文：This form of handcraft has passed on from one generation to another, and has become more and more popular（has gained increasing popularity）in China and other places of the world.
真题解析：原文的第二个分句中也出现了“已经”，所以判断用完成时，而且在“已经”前面出现了“现在”，提示我们应使用现在完成时态来翻译。
（2）现在完成时与一般过去时的比较：现在完成时态和一般过去时态都是讲过去发生的动作，主要差别是现在完成时强调过去发生的动作与现在的关系，或对现在的影响等，或是讲现在之前一段时间内持续的动作或状态；而一般过去时只表示动作发生在过去某一时刻，与现在没有联系。试比较：
I have bought this book for you.表示我给你买了，你不需要再买了。
I bought this book in the book store yesterday.表示昨天发生的动作。
（3）现在完成时态与time及形容词的最高级一起使用
This/That/It is（was）the first（second/third……）time+定语从句；
This/That/It is（was）+形容词最高级+名词+定语从句。
在这两个句型中，如果主句的谓语动词是一般现在时态，定语从句的谓语动词通常用现在完成时态；如果主句谓语动词是一般过去时态，从句的谓语动词通常用过去完成时态。例如，
This is the fourth time（that）she's gone to the cinema with him.
That is the best film（that）I have ever seen.
真题再现：This is the first time I have heard them communicate with each other in French.（听到他们用法语交流）（2012年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第92题）
（4）有关现在完成时态的几个问题
*have gone to和have been to的区别：
have gone to表示“已经动身去某地了”，因此人不在这里；
have been to表示“到（过）某地”，人已经从那里离开了。
She has gone to China early this morning. She has been there for twice.
*have got的特殊用法
have got虽然在形式上是现在完成时态，但在意义上与have是相同的。例如，
She has（got）a new skirt on.
I've（got）a lot of work to do.
*have got to和have to在意义上是相同的。例如，
You've got to bear my words in your mind.
2.过去完成时
（1）表示过去某时间前已经发生的动作或情况，这个过去的时间可以用by, before等介词短语或一个时间状语从句来表示；或者表示一个动作在另一个过去的动作之前已经完成。例如，
The film had already started when we got to the cinema.
Until then they had only covered half of the distance.
By the end of last term they had finished learning all the lessons required in Senior middle school.
The bus had already left before I arrived at the bus stop.
真题再现：Not until he had finished the mission（直到他完成使命）did he realize that he was seriously ill.（2008年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第91题）
真题解析：此题是not until句型提到句首引起倒装句的形式。从题干我们能够大致了解句子的含义是“直到他完成使命，他才意识到自己已经病入膏肓了”。如果用正常的语序，这句话的翻译应是He didn't realize that he was seriously ill until he had finished the mission.此句可以先变为It's not until he had finished the mission that he realized that he was seriously ill.的强调句的结构，强调内容就是not until的内容。然后再将It's……that……的强调句的标志去掉，注意在去掉过程中that后面的句子要使用半倒装的形式，此句中提前助动词did。
真题再现：So badly had he been injured in the traffic accident（他在车祸中受伤）that he had to stay in the hospital for a whole year.（2013年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
真题解析：此题仍然是倒装句的结构。在so……that句型中，当so的部分被提到句首时，主句要使用半倒装的结构，而that后的结果状语从句语序不变。根据主句与从句的逻辑关系可探知，车祸发生在“他不得不住院一整年”之前，是他住院的原因，因此，车祸是在过去的动作“had to stay in the hospital”之前就发生的动作，所以要用到过去完成时态。
（2）动词expect, hope, mean, intend, plan, suppose, wish, want, desire等用过去完成时，表示过去未实现的希望、预期、意图或愿望等。例如，
I had meant to leave last night, but I didn't catch the train.
I had intended to visit him this weekend, but I wasn't able to make it.
这种用法也常常用于than和as引导的从句中。例如，
They finished their work earlier than they had expected.
We didn't get along as well as we had hoped.
（3）过去完成时态与time一起使用，此时其主句的时态一般为一般过去时态。例如，
It was the first time that I had visited her house.
This was the second time that I had been in such an embarrassing situation.
（4）过去完成时态常用于宾语从句中，尤其是用于间接引语。例如，
They told me that they had known each other since they were young.
I heard that they had made up their mind to carry out the plan.
（5）过去完成时常用于hardly/scarcely……when和no sooner……than的固定句型中，这两个句型都表示“一……就……”。例如，
He had hardly arrived when she started complaining.
They had scarcely finished the work when he came in.
I had no sooner reached home than it began to rain.
在这三个句型中，当hardly、scarcely或no sooner提到句首时，后面要使用半倒装的形式。例如，
Scarcely had she returned when he left.
No sooner had they bought the house than a new problem emerged.
3.将来完成时
将来完成时表示在将来某一时刻将完成，或在另一个将来的动作发生之前已经完成的动作。常与将来完成时连用的时间状语有：by the end of+表示将来时间的词语；before the end of+表示将来时间的词语；when, before等加上表示将来动作的句子等。例如，
You will have finished reading this book by the end of this term.
Hurry up！Or the train will have left before（when）we get to the station.
By the time you arrive in London, we will have stayed in Europe for two weeks.
4.完成进行时
完成进行时是完成时的强调形式，有现在完成进行时、过去完成进行时、将来完成进行时。
现在完成进行时态：
（1）现在完成进行时表示过去开始的一个动作或状态一直延续到现在，该动作可能刚刚终止，也可能还要进行下去。
I have been learning English for more than 3 years.此句话强调：学英语这个行为，这三年来一直没有停止过。
She has been waiting for half an hour, but the manager hasn't come back.
（2）现在完成进行时态常和how long一起用，还可以和since和for引导的状语一起用。例如，
How long have you been doing this work？
It has been snowing for 4 days.
（3）现在完成进行时态可以表示一段时间内重复发生的动作。例如，
We have been using this computer for 7 years.
（4）现在完成进行时态与现在完成时态的主要差别是，现在完成时表示动作已完成，而完成进行时的动作有可能完成了，也有可能仍将继续下去。例如，
The secretary has typed this letter this morning.
The secretary has been typing this letter all morning.
过去完成进行时态：
（1）过去完成进行时态表示动作或状态在过去某一时间之前开始，一直持续到这一过去时间，该动作可能还在进行，也可能已经停止。例如，
She was just back to the dormitory.
She had been working in the lab.
（2）过去完成进行时态和现在完成进行时态的用法是一致的，只是要把时间从现在移到过去。例如，
“Where have you been hiding for so long？”I asked her.
I didn't know where she had been hiding for so long.
将来完成进行时表示动作或状态从某一时间开始一直延续到将来某一时间。这种时态用得较少。例如，
By the end of this year, she'll have been teaching English for 15 years.
（二）动词的语态
语态也是动词的一种形式，表达谓语动词与主语之间的关系。英语有两种语态：主动语态和被动语态。主动语态表示主语是动作的执行者，而被动语态表示主语是动作的承受者。
从是否后接宾语的角度来看，英语动词可以分为两种，即不及物动词和及物动词。不及物动词由于没有宾语，也就没有被动语态。例如，
The professor is invited to give us a talk in English.
被动句当中谓语的构成形式是be+过去分词。被动句的时态要依靠be的变化来表示：
一般现在时态的被动语态
is, am或are+过去分词
一般过去时态的被动语态
was或were+过去分词
一般将来时态的被动语态
will be+过去分词
一般过去将来时态的被动语态
would be+过去分词
现在进行时态的被动语态
is, am或are+being+过去分词
过去进行时态的被动语态
was或were+being+过去分词
现在完成时态的被动语态
has或have+been+过去分词
过去完成时态的被动语态
had+been+过去分词
被动语态的使用场合
根据不同的表达习惯，英文中多用被动语态，而汉语则多为主动语态。英语中被动语态的使用频率比汉语高得多，中国学生应注意在英译汉当中要适当地将英文中的被动语态转化为主动语态；同样汉译英时，要适当地将中文的主动语态转化为被动语态。
首先，让我们先看看英语在什么情况下会使用被动语态：
1.在不知道动作执行者是谁的情况下使用被动语态。例如，
Several people were injured in the traffic accident.
2.在动作执行者是泛指或很模糊的情况下使用被动语态。例如，
The United States of America was established in July 4th，1776.
It was suggested that the air conditioner（should）be installed by the window.
3.当没有必要提到动作的执行者时，可用被动语态。例如，
This magazine has been published since 1989（by the publishing house）.
The law was repealed several month ago（by the Congress）.
4.动作的承受者是谈话中心或特别强调的部分，这种情况下也使用被动语态。例如，
At last an agreement wasachieved at between the two parties.
When he is away on business, his dog is usually taken care of by his neighbor. 5.为了委婉或礼貌而避免提及动作施动者的情况下要使用被动语态。例如，
Too much money has been invested in this program by now.
You are supposed to spend the money a bit frugally.
6.为了使句子安排得更流畅而使用被动语态。例如，
She made a good score in the final examination and was praised by the teacher.
为了使这个并列句中的两个句子用一个主语，第二个分句使用了被动语态。
使用被动语态时应注意的问题
1.动词短语的被动语态，通常被看作是一个动词，只要将其中的动词变为被动语态形式即可。例如：
His negligence brought about such an accident.→
Such an accident was brought about by his negligence.
2.某些动词要用主动形式表示被动意义
1）在need, want, require, deserve, bear, stand等动词后面常用动名词的主动形式表示被动意义。
My watch is twenty minutes late. It needs mending.我的手表慢了20分钟，需要去修理一下。
His sufferings don't bear thinking about.他受的苦难不堪回首。
2）wash, sell, read, wear等用做不及物动词时，常用主动形式表示被动意义。
Umbrellas sell best in winter.雨伞在冬天最好卖。
This sweater washes well.这件毛衣很耐洗。
二、非谓语动词
非谓语动词是动词的非谓语形式。动词除了在句中充当谓语，还可以充当其他成分。由于动词的这一用法使其在人称和数方面不受主语的限制，也称动词的非限定形式。但非谓语动词也保留了动词的若干特征，如时态变化、语态变化，可以带宾语，可以被状语修饰等。非谓语动词形式包括不定式、动名词和分词。
（一）不定式
不定式有两种形式：一种是带to的不定式，另一种是不带to的不定式，后者即通常所说的动词原形。动词不定式主要起名词、形容词和副词的作用，同时又保留了动词的某些特征。不定式在句中可用作主语、表语、定语、同位语、状语和补语等。
1.动词不定式的形式
动词不定式是在动词原形前加to，动词不定式的形式如下表所示：
有时，动词不定式前面的to可以省略掉，其形式与动词原形相同。要否定动词不定式时，只需在to前面加not即可。
2.动词不定式在句中的作用
动词不定式是非谓语动词的一种形式，因此，除了不能单独充当谓语之外，动词不定式可以充当句子的任何成分。
（1）动词不定式作主语
To err is human, to forgive, divine.犯错误是人之常情，宽恕是超凡的。
当动词不定式充当句子主语时，常用it作形式主语。将动词不定式放到句尾，可使主语不至于过长，避免头重脚轻的现象。
真题再现：It is absolutely wrong to define happiness only by money.（仅仅以金钱来定义幸福）（2011年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第91题）
真题解析：此句还可写成“To define happiness only by money is absolutely wrong.”但显得主语过长，因此，变为了“it”充当形式主语的结构。
常见的it作形式主语、动词不定式被移至句尾的句式还有：
1）It+be+形容词+动词不定式：
It is impossible to finish the job in a week.
It is advisable to consider the suggestion for experienced colleagues.
It is very considerate of you to keep my secret from my parents.
2）It+be+名词+动词不定式：
It is an honor for me to introduce this year's class-elected speaker.
It is our responsibility to help those in need.
3）It+be+介宾词组+动词不定式
It will be against our principles to cooperate with them.
It's not within my power to change her view.
4）It+动词+（动词宾语）+动词不定式
It made us so happy to have you with us at the party.
It took him more than a year to learn to draw a beautiful horse.
（2）动词不定式作表语
1）有时用来说明主语的具体内容，主语多为duty, plan, wish, hope, idea, purpose等词。
The purpose of the meeting is to prepare for the coming contest.
My wish is to become a scientist.
2）有时可以表示目的。
The Great Wall is to keep enemy out of the central plain.
主语、表语都是动词不定式的形式，前者表示条件，后者表示目的或结果。
To learn a language is to use it.（表目的）
To see is to believe.（表结果）
3）动词不定式充当表语还可以表示计划、安排好的事情、时态发展的结果或预期。这也是动词不定式表示将来时态的用法。
They are to marry next week.
You are to die at 93.
（3）动词不定式作宾语
某些及物动词后可以用不定式作宾语，这些常考动词有：agree, attempt, claim, decide, demand, ask, hesitate, beg, fail, care, consent, promise, desire, hope, intend, learn, offer, plan, refuse, prepare, pretend, strive, require, appear, arrange, expect, manage, tend, afford, wish, want, seem, struggle, swear, threaten, wait, undertake, guarantee等。
动词不定式充当宾语要注意以下五种情况：
1）help后面接动词不定式可以省略to，例如，
Save just a little water every day, and we will help lessen the tension of the fresh water shortage.
2）remember, forget, regret这三个动词之后既可以接动词不定式作宾语，又可以接动名词作宾语。接动名词作宾语时，表示该动作已发生过了；接不定式作宾语时，表示该动作还没发生。例如，
I regret saying that I hated her.
I regret to say that we'll have to depart tomorrow.
3）在mean, try后面接动名词和不定式作宾语时，这两个词的词义发生变化。
mean doing意味着做……
try doing试着做……
mean to do打算做……
try to do尽力做……
Other people think that success means having their own business.
At the very beginning, she didn't mean to hurt anybody.
The United States tried persuading other countries to offer money for Iraq's reconstruction.
In recent years, China has tried to reduce the number of her army men.
4）like, love, prefer, hate等词后面既可以接动词不定式作宾语，又可以接动名词作宾语。接动名词作宾语时，表示一般情况；接动词不定式作宾语时，表示即将发生的事。例如，
She likes seeing films, but she doesn't like to see a film with you.
After the meal, I always prefer being alone, but this time I prefer to have a walk with her.
5）当动词不定式作宾语后接补语时，需要用it替代动词不定式作形式宾语。例如，
We think it necessary to deepen China's reform all-round.
（4）动词不定式作定语
动词不定式作定语，通常置于其所修饰的名词之后。
1）动词不定式作定语常用来修饰一个事物。例如，
I have invented a device to make the door shut by itself.
There is still a long way to go towards solving the problem.
动词不定式有时需用被动形式来作定语：
She made a list of things to be taken on the way.
They're invited to a party to be held in our club next Friday.
2）动词不定式作定语还可用来修饰人。例如，
She was the only one to survive the plane crash.
He has been a bit down about his failure. He needs someone to talk to.
动词不定式有时需用被动形式来作定语：
She is the most suitable person to be given this job.
Mr. Smith is the only foreigner to be awarded such an honor.
（5）动词不定式作状语
动词不定式作状语主要有下面几种情况：
1）用于“be+形容词+不定式”的结构中，例如：
I am very happy to work together with you.
I am so ashamed to have to trouble you.
They are determined to carry out their plan.
You are so lucky to find such a good job.
I was wrong to release this secret to her.
You are so generous to give such a considerable sum of money to them.
2）用动词不定式充当状语的其他句型。例如，
She arrived earlier in order to have a good seat.
From now on I will concentrate all my energy on my studies so as to qualify
myself as a talent in the 21st century.
Would you be kind enough to close the door？
This text is too difficult for them to understand.
3）动词不定式作状语可以表示目的。例如，
真题再现：Production has to be increased considerably to keep pace with the constantly growing demands of consumers.（与消费者不断增长的需求保持同步）（2009年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
真题再现：To ensure him to attend the meeting（为了确保他参加会议），I called him up in advance.（2010年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第87题）
真题解析：这两句中动词不定式都作状语，表示目的。第二句中him后面的动词不定式to attend the meeting做宾语补足语。
动词不定式作状语还可以表示结果、原因、条件等。例如，
He made a long speech, only to show his ignorance of the subject.（结果状语）
I am very glad to meet you here.（原因状语）
You will be kind enough to let me know.（条件状语）
（6）动词不定式用作独立成分
动词不定式用作独立成分，也可看作是动词不定式充当整个句子的状语，因而也被称为“句子状语”。常见的句子状语有：to begin with, to tell（you）the truth, to make/cut a long story short（长话短说），to be brief（简言之），to be exact（精确地说），to be frank（with）（老实说），to conclude（总而言之），to sum up（总之）等。
To tell the truth, the film was a great disappointment to me.
To be frank, you are not a good listener.
To be honest, I don't think we have a chance of winning.
Hotels sell service rather than a product, or, to put it another way, service is their product.
The hotel was awful！To begin with, our room was far too small. Then we found that the shower didn't work.
（7）动词不定式作宾语补足语
1）当动词不定式作宾语补足语时，宾语与用作宾语补足语的不定式构成复合宾语，二者在逻辑上是主谓关系。常接不定式作宾语补足语的动词有：advise, allow, ask, beg, cause, challenge, command, compel, convince, dare, encourage, enable, expect, forbid, force, hire, instruct, invite, need, oblige, order, permit, persuade, prepare, promise, recommend, remind, request, require, teach, tell, tempt, urge, want, warn等。
I expected her to arrive as quickly as possible.
It's my mother who keeps encouraging me not to lose heart（一直在鼓励我不用灰心）when I have difficulties in my studies.
2）有一些动词后用作宾语补足语的不定式通常不带to。这类动词通常有两类：
一类是感观动词，例如：see, watch, notice, observe, hear, feel, smell等；
另一类是使役动词，例如：make, have, let等。
Suddenly we felt the atmosphere grow tense！
What makes you tremble so much？
I have heard both teachers and students speak well of him.
The children were surprised when the teacher had them close their books unexpectedly.
在被动结构中不定式一律要带to。例如，
He was seen to fall.
He was often heard to sing this song！
3）在某些动词后可跟带有to be的宾语补足语形式。例如，
She found this to be true in all the cities she visited.
They judge him to be the best candidate.
有此类用法的动词还有consider, suppose, believe, declare, discover, feel, know, show等。
3.“for+名词/代词+不定式”结构：在这个结构中，for引出不定式的逻辑主语。例如，
What I want is for you to talk with Lucy.
It won't be easy for you to find a new job.
It's time for you to reconsider this suggestion.
Experts say walking is one of the best ways for a person to stay healthy.
注：还有一种“形容词+of+名词/代词+不定式”结构。可用在该结构的形容词有：bold, clever, considerate, courteous, cruel, foolish, honest, nice, rash, rude, sensible, silly, stupid, tactful, thoughtful, thoughtless, wise, wrong等。例如，
It was kind of you to help us.
It is unfair of him to say such things about her.
How generous of you to contribute so much money！
It is considerate of you to keep my secret from my parents.
4.“疑问词+动词不定式”结构
疑问词who, what, which, when, where和how等词后加不定式可构成一种特殊的不定式短语，在功能上相当于一个名词。例如，
I don't know whether to accept the offer or not.
The mother didn't know who to blame for the broken glass.
真题再现：I read the book last week, but now it is nowhere to be found.（哪也找不到了）（2012年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
真题解析：此题目考点有两个：第一个是用一个副词+动词不定式的形式充当句子的表语；第二个是，此结构中的动词不定式中的动词与句子的主语it是动宾的关系，因此应使用动词不定式的被动语态形式。
5.不带to的动词不定式结构：
在下列结构的后面常接不带to的动词不定式：had better, would rather, would sooner, rather than, would just as soon, may/might as well, can not but, other than, cannot help but, do nothing but等。
I'd rather walk than take a bus to school.
You'd better wait and look for another chance.
Lee could not help but agree with her.
I can not but admit that he is right and I am wrong.我不得不承认他对了，我错了。
真题再现：This TV program is quite boring.We might as well listen to the music（不妨听听音乐）.
真题解析：此题考点为固定词组“might as well do something”表示“不妨做某事”。
注：在except, but之前有动词do作实义动词时，则except, but后一般接不带to的动词不定式，反之则接带to的动词不定式。
I have no choice but to accept the fact.
We have nothing to do now but wait.
6.动词不定式的时态、语态问题
（1）动词不定式的完成形式
当动词不定式所表示的动作在谓语所表示的情况之前发生时，就需要用动词不定式的完成时态。
真题再现：The significant museum is said to have been built（据说建成于）about a hundred years ago.（2010年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
真题解析：此题的考点有三个：一个是It's said that结构的改写，即可以把that主语从句中的名词主语作为整句话的主语，后面接be said to do的结构；二是动词不定式的完成形式；三是动词的被动语态。此句若用主语从句应写为It's said that the significant museum was built about a hundred years ago.此句中应注意主语从句的时态为一般过去时态，因此museum建成的时间早于主句is said的时间。所以当museum充当全句主语时，要用到动词不定式的完成形式；而且build和主语museum之间又形成了动宾关系，所以动词build要用被动语态形式。
同样的形式还有：
A Dream of Red Mansions is said to have been translated into dozens of languages in the last decade.据说在最近十年里，红楼梦被译为几十种语言。
（2）动词不定式的进行形式
不定式的进行式表示正在进行的动作。
The cheat pretended to be weaving when the chancellor came in.
He's out？He's supposed to be reviewing his lessons now.
（3）动词不定式的被动形式
当不定式的逻辑主语是不定式所表示动作的承受者时，不定式要用被动形式。这种被动形式可作句中的主语、表语、宾语、定语、状语和补语。
It's an honor for him to be invited to address the meeting.（作主语）
Her only dream is to be admitted by her glorious family.（作表语）
I don't want to be dismissed as useless.（作宾语）
There is a lot of scenery to be seen in the mountain range.（作定语）
She shut herself in the room in order not to be disturbed.（作状语）
She doesn't like her name to be mentioned in the newspapers.（作宾语补足语）
（二）动名词
动名词由动词原形加词尾-ing构成，其构成法与现在分词一样，但在句中起的是名词作用，可用作主语、表语、宾语、定语、补语等。
1.动名词的形式
动名词有动词性质，作为动词，动名词有如下形式：
动名词可以有自己的宾语和状语，还可以用一个代词或名词所有格表示其逻辑主语。例如，
Would you mind me opening the window to air the room？
如果要否定动名词，在其前面加上not即可。
2.动名词在句中的作用
（1）动名词作主语
Seeing is believing.眼见为实/百闻不如一见。
Talking to him is talking to a wall.和他说话等于对牛弹琴。
Finding a job in such a big company has always been beyond his wildest dreams.
当动名词作主语时，有时可用it作形式主语，将用作真实主语的动名词放在句末。it is后可接no use, no good, a wonder, a waste of time等名词，也可接useless, nice, worthwhile等形容词。例如，
It's no use arguing with her. She is so stubborn.
It's a wonder meeting you here at the party.
It's a waste of time learning all this stuff by heart.
It's nice seeing you again.
It's worthwhile continuing with the project.
（2）动名词作表语
Seeing is believing.
One of her duties is keeping the girl safe.
（3）动名词作宾语
1）某些及物动词后可接动名词作宾语，这些动词有：admit, appreciate, avoid, complete, defer, deny, dislike, enjoy, escape, fancy, finish, imagine, keep, mind，
postpone, practice, quit, resent, resist, suggest, tolerate等。例如，
Fancy her being so rude！
I suggest putting an end to the meeting.
Do you anticipate meeting any trouble？
John often attempts to escape being punished whenever he does something wrong at school.
People appreciate working with him because he has a good sense of humor.
真题再现：Seeing those pictures, the student couldn't help thinking of those memorable days.（回忆起那些难忘的日子）（2013年大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
2）有些动词后可以用动名词作宾语，也可用动词不定式作宾语，有时两者意义上有差别。（参考动词不定式作宾语部分）
3）以介词结尾的动词短语要用动名词作宾语。这些动词短语包括：aim at, burst out, confess to, consist in, contribute to, feel like, give up, insist on, keep on, lead to, look forward to, object to, persist in, put off, resort to, succeed in, think of等。
I don't feel like having a drink.
We must aim at increasing exports.
She objected to being treated like this.
She finally confessed to having stolen the wallet.
Officials fear that extremists may resort to violence.
She persists in believing that she will succeed in the end.
I hope that your suggestion will contribute to solving the problem.
She had hardly finished her joke when the whole class burst out laughing.
真题再现：We look forward to being invited to attend the opening ceremony.（被邀请出席开幕式）（2010年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
真题解析：look forward to当中的to是介词的形式，后面要用名词或者动名词来充当宾语。根据中文提示，这里做look forward to宾语的是被动语态结构：被邀请，因此要使用动名词的被动语态结构being invited。
4）以介词结尾的形容词短语要用动名词作宾语。这些形容词短语包括：be afraid of, be interested in, be fond of, be good at, be keen on, be surprised at, be tired of, be used to, be capable of, be fed up with等。
Mrs Hill is keen on Tom's marrying Susan.
I was getting tired of all her negative remarks.
He's quite capable of lying to get out of trouble.
I didn't mention it because I was afraid of upsetting him.
John's extremely fond of pointing out other people's mistakes.
5）在“及物动词+宾语+介词”结构的后面，也常跟动名词作宾语。这些结构包括：accuse sb.of, charge sb.with, dedicate/devote oneself to, forgive sb.for, have trouble（difficulty）in doing sth.，keep sb.from, prevent sb.from, stop sb.from, suspect sb.of, thank sb.for等。
She charged me with neglecting my duty.
She dedicated her life to helping the poor.
She could hardly keep herself from laughing.
They accused him of cheating in the examination.
Please forgive me for interrupting/my interrupting.
What made you suspect her of having taken the money？
6）有些介词后能接动名词构成状语。例如，
I'd shoot myself before apologizing to him.
The play was badly acted, besides being far too long.
On entering the house, she perceived him as a man of taste.
The party was organized without her knowing anything about it.
7）还有一些介词构成的短语，后面可跟动名词作宾语。例如，
Let's play cards instead of watching television.
Guests can have a rest prior to entering the meeting hall.
3.动名词的复合结构
“名词所有格/物主代词+动名词”，即构成动名词的复合结构，名词所有格或物主代词是动名词的逻辑主语。当动名词充当句子宾语时，其逻辑主语还可以用名词或人称代词的宾格形式，多用于口语及非正式的文体。例如，
It's a great honor your coming to visit us.
Your coming to help is a great encouragement to us.
I appreciate your making the effort to help.
I'll never forget my mother talking about it.
I am quite angry about your laughing at me.
Since my arriving in Beijing, I have been busy with my job.
4.动名词的完成式与被动形式
（1）当动名词所表示的动作发生在句子谓语动词所表示的动作之前时，该动名词要使用完成式。例如，
I admit having seen her before.
I couldn't recall having heard this name before.
I still regret having given up such an opportunity to leave this city.
（2）当动名词与被其修饰说明的名词或代词在逻辑上是动宾关系时，该动名词要使用被动形式。例如，
I object to being called as a fool.
I can't help being moved by the movie.
We have to prevent their plan from being carried out.
I remember having ever been taken to my father's factory when I was quite young.
注：在某些动词后的动名词的主动形式可以表示被动含义。这些动词有need, require, want, deserve等等。例如，
You deserve punishing.
Most house plants require regular watering.
（三）现在分词
分词也是非谓语动词的形式。分词有现在分词和过去分词两种。现在分词的具体构成法与动名词一样，即由动词原形加-ing构成。现在分词在句中可用作表语、定语、状语、补语等。
现在分词在意义上一般表示主动和正在进行。
1.现在分词的形式
现在分词的形式如下表所示：
2.现在分词在句中的作用
（1）现在分词作表语
The cottage is tiny, but it is charming.
Such news is quite disappointing to us.
It's frightening to think how easily children can be hurt.
It's disgusting that there are no schools or hospitals for these people.
To a devoted scientist, theoretical reasoning and experiment are most exciting and far from boring.
（2）现在分词作定语
They do the best they can in trying circumstances.
It was a touching story that moved many of us to tears.
With the growing industry, more and more manufacturers are realizing the importance of media in the promotion of their products.
现在分词作定语时，一般放在它所修饰的名词之前。当现在分词短语作定语时，一般放在它所修饰的名词之后，相当于一个定语从句。例如，
There is a lady asking to see you at once.
A friendly smile can and will remove barriers hindering social interaction.
注：在一些固定搭配中，现在分词作定语必须置于它所修饰的名词之后。如：for the time being（现在）等。
（3）现在分词作状语
现在分词作状语，有的时候出现在句首的位置，可表时间、原因、条件等，有的时候出现在句尾，表示结果或者伴随。一般来说，现在分词的逻辑主语应和主句的主语一致。
真题再现：Seeing those pictures, the student couldn't help thinking of those memorable days.（回忆起那些难忘的日子）（2013年大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
真题解析：此句中，seeing those pictures做状语，代替when引导的时间状语从句，可以改写为“When he saw those pictures”。这个状语从句的主语应与主句的主语保持一致，只有这种条件下，才可以把状语从句改写为现在分词作状语的形式。
Having been given such a good chance, how could I let it slip away？（表示原因，可以改写为since引导的原因状语从句“Since I have been given such a good chance”）。
Having only book knowledge, you can not work well in the future.（表示条件，可以改写为“If you have only book knowledge”。）
真题再现：David turned away and walked quickly down the street, completely ignoring her presence.（完全无视她的存在）（2012年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第87题）
真题解析：首先，可以看出真题中所给的英文部分已经是一个完整的句子了，而中文提示里又出现了一个动词“无视”，因此，只能考虑非谓语动词的形式。此处可推断，正是当David turned away and walked quickly down the street的时候表现出David完全无视她的存在的，因此，“无视”应该作前文动作的伴随状语，应该采用现在分词的形式。
In order to get the best score in their examination, students compete fiercely, thus impelling them to learn more.（表示结果）
（4）现在分词作补语
I can smell trouble coming.（宾语补足语）
He was caught stealing money yesterday afternoon.（主语补足语）
His remarks left me wondering about his real purpose.（宾语补足语）
She was seen running away from the scene of the crime.（主语补足语）
某些动词后的补足语成分，可以由现在分词或不带to的不定式充当。表示动作正在进行时用现在分词，表示动作完成时用不定式。例如，
She was seen to enter the building about the time the crime was committed.（She entered the building.）
From the window we could see the children playing in the yard.（The children were playing in the yard.）
I heard someone laughing.（Someone was laughing.）
Did you hear him go out？（He went out.）
（5）现在分词的独立结构
现在分词常常可将名词或代词置于前充当主语，二者构成现在分词的独立结构，常常用作状语，置于句首或句末，是独立主格的一种形式。
Weather permitting, we'll have a picnic this weekend.（表示条件，相当于If the weather permits）
All flights having been canceled because of the storm, they decided to take the train.
There being ice on the road, I told the driver to slow down.
We visited the university campus, John acting as guide.
我们知道，现在分词本身就能够充当状语。独立结构充当状语的区别就在于独立结构中的现在分词带有了自己的逻辑主语，从而解决了现在分词充当状语时，其逻辑主语必须和主句主语保持一致的局限性。
3.现在分词的完成形式
现在分词有时需要用完成形式，说明它表示的动作发生在谓语动词所表示的动作之前，在句中常用作状语，表时间和原因。
Having sent the child to school, she went to work.（表时间）
Having settled in the hotel, they started for the restaurant.（表时间）
Not having got an answer, I decided to send her another e-mail.（表原因）
Having been ill for over a month, he fell behind his classmates with his school work.（表原因）
4.现在分词的被动形式
当现在分词所表示的动作与其逻辑主语之间是被动关系时，我们就用现在分词的被动式。例如，
This is one of the many bridges being built over the river.
此句中现在分词的逻辑主语是many bridges，和build之间是被动关系。之所以选择用现在分词结构是为了表达many bridges当前正在建造中。比较下面两句话：
When being asked to answer the question, she felt a little nervous.此句话表示“她”在被问问题的那一刻感到紧张。
When asked to answer the question, she felt a little nervous.此句表示只要是被问到问题，她就会感到紧张，这是一个普遍现象。
Having been brought up in the countryside, he found it hard to get accustomed to town life.
5.转化为介词的现在分词
有一些分词在句子中被用作介词。现在分词形式的介词有regarding, concerning, considering, according to等等。例如，
The company is being questioned regarding its employment policy.
The speech which he made concerning the project has bothered me greatly.
Considering the strength of the opposition, we did very well to score two goals.
（四）过去分词
过去分词也是一种非谓语动词的形式，一般由“动词原形+-ed”构成，还有一些动词不是以这种形式构成的过去分词，这类动词被称作不规则动词。过去分词在句中不能直接作谓语，它相当于形容词和副词，在句中可用作表语、定语、状语、补语等，一般表示被动，有时也可表示完成。
1.过去分词的形式
过去分词一般由“动词原形+-ed”形式构成，例如：paint-painted；clean-cleaned；stop-stopped；chat-chatted；study-studied；satisfy-satisfied等。
不规则动词变过去分词的方式需要特殊记忆。有部分动词的过去分词形式词形没有变化，例如：come, become, cost, let, read, run, shut, burst, cut, hurt, put, set, spread等；部分动词要变为以-en结尾，例如：beat-beaten, break-broken, choose-chosen, fall-fallen, hide-hidden, shake-shaken, eat-eaten, freeze-frozen， give-given, ride-ridden, rise-risen, take-taken, speak-spoken, steal-stolen, wake-woken, write-written等；部分动词将词中字母i变为u，例如：begin, dig, ring, sink, sing, stick, spin, spring, swim等。少数动词有两种过去分词形式，
例如：
bear born生
hang hung悬挂
borne负担
hanged绞死
2.过去分词在句子中的作用
（1）过去分词作定语
1）过去分词作定语，多带有被动的含义。例如：
guided missile导弹
frozen food冷冻食品
finished products成品
required courses必修课
animated cartoons动画片
armed forces武装力量
canned food罐头食品
classified document机密文件
united front统一战线
mixed feelings复杂的情绪
也有部分过去分词作定语，带有完成的含义。例如，
the risen sun升起的太阳
a retired worker退休的工人
a faded flower凋谢的花
a departed friend离去的朋友
an escaped prisoner逃犯
2）很多表示情绪的、作定语的形容词是过去分词形式。例如：satisfied, frightened, worried, pleased, shocked, confused等。
The teacher nodded to the student, with a satisfied smile on her face.
The policewoman found a frightened child in the hut.
After her announcement, there was a shocked silence.
There is a puzzled expression on his face.
3）大多数单个过去分词作定语，过去分词出现在名词前面。有时，也会出现过去分词放在名词后面作定语的情况，而过去分词短语则经常跟在所修饰的名词后，作用接近于一个定语从句。例如，
Things seen are more believable than things heard.
As for such an accident, not a word is mentioned in the documents studied.
同一过去分词作后置定语有时与其作前置定语功能、含义不同。例如，
All people involved were called to court.（相关的）
This is an involved problem.（复杂的）
The CD given to her is my favourite.（给）
Let's meet at the given time and place.（确定的）
All people concerned are present.（相关的）
She spoke to me with a concerned look.（焦虑的）
（2）过去分词作表语
I was so annoyed with him for turning up late.
Are you bored with your present job？
I'm convinced that she is telling the truth.
I was shocked to see my teacher at the party.
（3）过去分词作状语
过去分词作状语，可表示时间、原因、伴随状况、条件、结果、方式等意义。
He got home at last, listless and exhausted.（表结果）
No one can sail the ocean of life single-handed.（表方式）
Given good health, I hope to finish the project this year.（表条件）
Mike, shocked by what has happened, can not say a word.（表原因）
In came a short man with a beard, followed by our teacher.（表伴随）
Seen from space, our earth, with water covering 70%of its surface, appears as a blue planet.（表时间）
过去分词作状语，有时会和连词一起用，例如：
Although born a girl, she was treated as a boy.
When treated as sick, grandpa felt offended.
She was shocked as if awakened from a nightmare.
Whenever asked about his first girlfriend, he could hardly hide his mixed feelings.
（4）过去分词作宾语补足语
当过去分词作宾语补足语时，其前面的谓语动词多是感官动词或使役动词，宾语一般与宾语补足语构成被动关系。例如，
I've seen that method applied by many people.
They don't want their daughter taken out after dark.
The manager promised to keep me informed of how our business was going on.
Nowadays, people constantly find themselves exposed to various advertisements.
注：使役动词have后也常接含有过去分词作宾语补足语的结构，但过去分词所表示的动作有时由他人完成，有时则是句子主语所遭受的经历。例如，
I even couldn't spare time to have my hair cut.（头发是让别人帮自己理）
She had her wallet stolen on her way to school.（自己的经历）
（5）过去分词作独立结构
过去分词有时也可将名词或代词主格置于前，二者之间形成被动关系，共同构成一个独立结构，在句子中充当状语，也是独立主格的一种形式。
Their home destroyed by the storm, they had to live in the cave.
They will send the books to you for 247 yuan, postage included.
All things considered, beans and some leafy green vegetables are the best sources of iron.
三、虚拟语气
语气和时态、语态一样，是谓语动词的一种形式，用来表明说话人的目的和意图。英语中有四大语气：
陈述语气：用来陈述一个事实。例如，
China is a country who has a glorious history of 5，000 years.
疑问语气：用来提出问题。例如，
Where has she been all these days？
祈使语气：用来提出请求、邀请，给予忠告、指示等。例如，
Come and take a seat beside me！
Please sign your name here, Sir.
虚拟语气：表示一种假想的情况或与事实相反的主观愿望。例如，
If I were you, I would take their offer at once.
I would have failed the exam without your help.
虚拟语气是英语学习中的一个难点，也是大学英语测试的重要语法考点之一。测试内容涉及虚拟条件句、虚拟语气在各类从句（主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、同位语从句、状语从句、定语从句）中的应用。学生应着重理解的是：虚拟语气表达的是一种与事实相反的行为或状态。学习虚拟语气的重点及难点是要牢记虚拟语气在各个时态及从句中的形式并能灵活运用。
1.虚拟语气在条件句中的应用
（1）真实条件句和虚拟条件句
条件句可以分为两类：一类是已经成为事实的，或在已有的条件下很有可能成为事实的，这就是真实条件句。例如，
If he has time, he will come and help us.
If you haven't finished your paper, you can hand it tomorrow.
真题再现：Our efforts will pay off if the results of this research can be applied to the development of the new technology.（能应用于新技术的开发）（2008年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第87题）
真题再现：If you find yourself waiting in a long queue（发现自己在排长队等候）at a supermarket checkout counter, are you likely to get impatient？（2012年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第91题）
注意：如果真实条件句的主句和从句都表示将来发生的事情，主句往往用将来时态，而条件从句用一般现在时态代替将来时态。
另一类是非真实条件句，表示不大可能或不可能发生的事情或纯粹的假设，句中的条件从句与主句都要用虚拟语气，因此又被称为虚拟条件句。
（2）虚拟条件句
虚拟条件句中，其条件从句及主句谓语动词的形式如下表：
表示现在及将来情况的虚拟条件句：
What would John say if you asked him？（当然你不会去问他）
If I were a teacher, I would treat my students alike.（事实是：我不是老师）
If she were here, everything would be all right.（事实是：她现在不在这儿）
表示过去情况的虚拟条件句：
If I had left a little earlier, I would have caught the school bus.（事实是：我离开的晚，没赶上校车）
If I had taken your advice, I might have avoided such a mistake.（事实是：我没有听从你的建议，因此也没能避免这样的错误）
真题再现：The victim would have had a chance to survive（本来会有机会活下来）if he had been taken to hospital in time.（2006年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
真题解析：此题考的是与过去事实相反的虚拟语气。根据题干不难发现if条件句中使用的是过去完成时态had been taken的结构，主句中的汉语提示“本来会有机会”告诉我们，事实上没有机会了。因此，这句话表达了与过去事实相反的概念，是一个虚拟条件句。根据虚拟语气中谓语动词的变化规律，就过去时态进行虚拟，主句的结构是would have+过去分词，结合中文提示，将have a chance to survive（有活下来的机会）代入结构中即可获得正确答案。
真题再现：If she had returned an hour earlier, Mary wouldn't have been caught by the heavy rain.（就不会被大雨淋了）（2009年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
真题解析：此题同样是考与过去事实相反的虚拟语气。If的条件句中使用had+过去分词结构，结合主句的中文提示“就不会被大雨淋了”，说明是与过去发生的事实相反，因此是就过去时态进行虚拟。此句主句的结构应为“would have+过去分词”，根据中文应使用否定形式。“被雨淋”可译为“be caught by the rain”，“大雨”是“the heavy rain”（“雨下得大”是“It rains heavily.”）。将这几部分组合，可获得正确答案。
真题再现：You would not have failed if you had followed my instructions.（按照我的指令去做）（2009年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第87题）
真题解析：此题考与过去事实相反的虚拟语气。原句中给出了虚拟条件句的主句，根据主句的谓语结构“would（not）have failed”的结构，可推知，此句是就过去时态进行虚拟。根据从句的提示，可以推知事实的情况是：你没按我的指令去做，你失败了。If从句要表达与过去事实相反的情况，因此用到“had+过去分词”的结构。“按照我的指令去做”译为“follow my instructions/orders”，将其代入固定结构即可。
根据上表，对于虚拟条件句，我们还应该注意下面几种情况：
1）当表示与将来有可能发生的情况相反时，虚拟条件句的if从句除了使用过去式表示虚拟语气之外，还可以使用were to+动词原形或should+动词原形的形式。例如：
If it were to（should）rain, I would stay at the dormitory room this evening.
If you were to（should）do this job, what would you do？
真题再现：If the reaction were to take place, a tremendous amount of energy would be released.（巨大的能量就会被释放出来）（2012年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第91题）
真题解析：此句考的是与将来有可能发生的情况相反的虚拟语气。If从句采取的是就将来时态进行虚拟的“were to+动词原形”的结构，结合主句的中文提示，可判断此句的主句也是就将来时态进行虚拟，因此，要用到“would+动词原形”的形式。
2）虚拟条件句中主句谓语的助动词除了用would之外，还可以用could或是might。一般当主句的主语是第一人称I或者we时，助动词也可以用should。例如，
If she had been there with me, I would/could/might/should have felt much better then.
If I were to see her tomorrow, I would/could/might/should give your best regards to her.
3）英文虚拟语气用法中有一个固定的句型：
If it were not for……（就现在或将来时态进行虚拟）和
If it hadn't been for……（就过去时态进行虚拟）
这两个结构表示中文的“若不是……”。例如，
If it were not for you, we should be in serious trouble.
If it hadn't been for your help, we would have failed again.
这个结构可以用But for来进行替换，例如，
But for his help, I should not have succeeded.
4）当虚拟条件句的if从句中出现were, had，或should时，可以把if省略掉，把这三个词提到主语前面。这就是虚拟语气的倒装句。例如，
Were she to leave right now, she would get there on Sunday.
Had we made adequate preparations, we might have succeeded in the contest.
Should Mrs. Smith call again, I would tell her the truth.
Had it not been for the bank, we'd never have been able to beat the flood.
5）错综时间虚拟条件句
在表示虚拟语气的句子中，条件从句表示的动作与主句表示的动作发生的时间并不一致，这时，谓语动词的形式要根据各自表示的时间来调整，这种现象叫做错综时间虚拟条件句。此时，在大多数情况下，条件从句和主句会出现不同的时间状语。例如，
If she had taken the medicine last night, she would feel better now.
If I hadn't stood under the ladder to catch you when you fell, you wouldn't be smiling now.
If I had studied hard when I was in university, I would sit in an office and drink coffee now.
If the weather had been more favorable in spring, the crops would grow still better in autumn.
6）含蓄条件句
有时候，虚拟条件句中的if从句没有出现，而是以一个介宾词组的形式出现。例如，
Under more favorable condition, he would have done even better.
Without music, what would the world be like？
But for your help, we couldn't have succeeded in the experiment.
有时候，假设的情况可以通过上下文的方式表现出来。
She would have finished the job long time before, but she has been ill.（=if she hadn't been ill）
He was ill last night. Otherwise, he would have taken part in the party.（otherwise=if he hadn't been ill last night）
能够起到和otherwise相同作用的词还有or, or else。
真题再现：Linda couldn't have received my e-mail（不可能收到我的电子邮件）；otherwise, she would have replied.（2011年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
真题解析：此题结合了情态动词表示推测的用法和虚拟语气的用法，是四级的常考点。根据前后句的结构，此题第一个分句的内容应该是事实的情况或作者认为是事实的情况，然后用otherwise代替与前文事实相反的虚拟条件句。根据本句所给出的题干，otherwise后面的主句的谓语用的是表示就过去时态进行虚拟的would have+done的结构，可见，本句要表述的是过去发生的事情；第一个分句的汉语意义中带有“不可能”，说明是一种推测。结合以上两点，第一个分句应该表达的是对过去发生事情的一种推测，即couldn't have done的结构。
相同的考题还有：
Yesterday Jane left the meeting early. Otherwise, she would have said something she might regret later.（可能会说一些后来会懊悔的话）（2012年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
真题再现：We could have avoided making such a stupid mistake（本来可以避免犯这个愚蠢的错误），but we didn't follow his advice.（2012年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
真题解析：此句与前一句中含蓄条件句的原理是一样的。原句前后并列句之间用but来连接，but后面的内容是发生在过去的一个事实，即我们的确是没有听从他的建议。结合汉语提示，这样做引发的后果应该是“我们没能避免这个愚蠢的错误”，那么考题所让我们填的部分恰好与过去事实相反的情况，应该用的would/could/might have done的结构。
2.虚拟语气在名词性从句中的用法
（1）虚拟语气用于宾语从句
1）虚拟语气用于wish后的宾语从句
动词wish后的宾语从句中，谓语动词用虚拟语气，表示与事实相反或不大可能实现的愿望。通常有三种形式：
对将来发生的事情表达愿望时，宾语从句的谓语用：would+动词原形。
I wish that you would try again.
I wish that one day I would walk on the moon.
表示与现在事实相反的愿望时，宾语从句的谓语用一般过去时或过去进行时。
I wish I were as clever as you.
Sometimes I wish I were living in a different time and a different place.
真题再现：Jane is tired of dealing with customer complaints and wishes that she could be assigned to do another job.（能被分配做另一项工作）（2011年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
真题解析：此句从题干可知，考察的知识点就是wish后面所接的宾语从句的虚拟形式。根据中文的提示，在不用虚拟语气的情况下，此处可译为“can be assigned to do another job”，当变为虚拟语气时，把can变为could即可。
对过去发生的事情表示遗憾或后悔时，宾语从句的谓语用“过去完成时或could/would have done”的形式。
I wish you had paid more attention to our pronunciation.
I wish I could have gone with you last night.
I wish I could have slept longer this morning, but I had to get up and come to class.
2）虚拟语气用于would rather, would sooner, had rather后的宾语从句
would rather, would sooner, had rather等短语表示“宁愿”的意思，其后的宾语从句中的谓语要用虚拟语气，常用过去式表示与现在事实相反，用过去完成式表示与过去事实相反。
He would sooner it were winter now.
I had rather that you told him than that I did.
Wouldn't you rather your child went to bed early？
Henry would rather that his girl friend worked in the same department as he does.
3）当动词ask, advise, command, desire, demand, insist, prefer, propose, recommend, request, require, suggest等后面接宾语从句时，从句的谓语用“should+动词原形（其中should可省略）”来表示虚拟语气。
Was it too much to ask that he be allowed some privacy？请求给予他一些私人权利不过分吧？
She insisted that we（should）start straightway in the morning.
I suggest that we（should）set a good example for the youth first.
The command-in-chief ordered that all troops（should）get ready to attack.
The court has commanded that all copies of the book（should）be destroyed.
真题再现：The professor required that we（should）hand in our research report.（我们交研究报告）（2006年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
真题再现：They requested that the books I borrowed（should）be returned to the library（我借的书还回图书馆）by next Friday.（2010年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第91题）
真题解析：此处两道翻译真题考的是require和request后面接宾语从句是要用虚拟语气，虚拟形式是“（should）+动词原形”。第二道题目中被翻译的宾语从句的主语是“我借的书”，其与后面的谓语动词“还（return）”之间应是动宾关系，所以宾语从句中要用被动语态。
（2）虚拟语气用于主语从句
1）在It is（was）important（necessary, desirable, advisable, urgent, essential, natural, preferable, crucial, ridiculous, vital）that的主语从句中，谓语要用“should+动词原形（其中should可以省略）”的形式来构成虚拟语气。
It is advisable that everyone（should）have a map.
It is vital that enough money should be collected to fund the project.
It is only natural that she（should）be upset by the insult.
It is important that we（should）cooperate with each other.
It is most desirable that they（should）both come to the party.
It is essential that these application forms be sent back as early as possible.
2）在It is（was）a pity和It is（was）no wonder that的主语从句中，谓语要用“should+动词原形（其中should可以省略）”的形式来构成虚拟语气。
It is their wish that you（should）do what you want.
It is a pity that she（should）miss such a good opportunity.
3）在It is（was）desired（arranged, decided, ordered, proposed, requested, recommended, suggested）that的主语从句中，谓语要用“should+动词原形（其中should可以省略）”的形式来构成虚拟语气。
It is desired all these books（should）be read before the final exam.
It has been decided that the meeting（should）be put off until next Wednesday.
It is recommended that the project（should）not be started until all the preparations have been made.
真题再现：It is suggested that the air conditioner（should）be installed by the window.（要安装在窗户旁边）（2010年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
真题解析：此题用到上述结构中的“It is/was+suggested+that的主语从句”。因此，可判断主语从句中的结构是“主语+（should）+动词原形”的形式。此主语从句的主语已经确定为“the air conditioner”，与动词“安装（install）”形成被动语态的关系。
（3）虚拟语气用于表语从句和同位语从句
名词suggestion, proposal, requirement, request, order, recommendation等后面的表语从句和同位语从句，谓语要用“should+动词原形（其中should可省略）”来表示虚拟语气。
The orders were that we attack the enemy at once.（表语从句）
His requirement is that they shouldn't interfere with his experiment.（表语从句）
My suggestion is that we（should）send someone to ask for information first.（表语从句）
I second her proposal that a committee be established to look into this matter.（同位语从句）
One of the requirements for a fire is that the material be heated to its burning temperature.（表语从句）
Nothing could make me agree with his idea that our company（should）cooperate with this Japanese company.（同位语从句）
3.虚拟语气在状语从句中的用法
（1）虚拟语气用于方式状语从句
在as if, as though引导的方式状语从句中，虚拟形式是：用过去式表示与现在事实相反或对现在情况有所怀疑；用过去完成时表示对过去事实的相反的假设。
It seems as if it was spring already.
She treats you as if you were her son.
They talked as if they had been friends for many years.
注意：①as if, as though引导的方式状语从句中，be在第一、三人称后可用was或were。
②在look, seem, smell, taste, sound等感官动词后，当as if, as though引导的方式状语从句没有明确地表明与事实相反的话，也可以用陈述语气。例如，
It looks as if he has finished his own job.
It seems as if we'll have to give up our plan.
It sounds as if someone is knocking at the door.
真题再现：Those flowers looked as if they hadn't been watered for long.（好长时间没有浇水了）（2012年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第87题）
真题解析：根据主句的谓语动词是一般过去时，可见as if引导一个表示与过去事实相反的虚拟语气的句子。所以as if后从句的谓语动词要用过去完成时。由于花做主语，与谓语“浇水”之间形成被动语态关系，因此，翻译是用到had been done的结构。又如，
真题再现：He knew France well, as if he had been to that country many times.（似乎他多次去过那个国家）（2013年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第87题）
（2）虚拟语气用于目的状语从句
1）以lest, for fear that, in case等引导的目的状语从句中，谓语动词用“（should）+动词原形”来构成虚拟语气。
She took an umbrella with her lest it（should）rain.
We spoke in whispers for fear that we（should）wake the baby.
I'll keep a seat for you in case you（should）change your mind.
真题再现：You'd better take a sweater with you in case it（should）turn cold.（以防天气变冷）（2008年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
真题解析：根据中文提示，此句应使用in case引导的目的状语从句，从句的虚拟形式为“（should）+动词原形”。
2）在so that, in order that等引导的目的状语从句中，谓语动词多用“might/may+动词原形”来构成虚拟语气，口语中也常用“can/could+动词原形”。
I live so that others can live better.
Bring it nearer so that I could see it better.
He saved up his money so that he might go abroad for his summer holiday.
（3）虚拟语气用于让步状语从句
以whatever, whoever, no matter what之类代词或词组引导的让步状语从句中，谓语多用may加动词原形构成虚拟语气。
Come what may, I will stand by you.
Whoever you may be, I won't let you in.
No matter what you may say, I just don't believe she is a liar.
4.虚拟语气的其他用法
（1）虚拟语气用于定语从句
在It is（high）（about）time（that）……句型中，that引导的定语从句中的谓语常用一般过去时来构成虚拟语气。
It's about time that we went home.
It's high time that she put an end to her silly behavior.
真题再现：He is well into his thirties.It's about time he settled down and started his own business.（安顿下来，开始创业）（2012年大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
真题解析：题目中题干的部分是英语中固定的结构It's about time（that），后面要接一般过去时表示虚拟语气，因此，“安顿”和“开始”这两个并列谓语要变为过去式。
（2）虚拟语气用于if only引导的惊叹句
在if only引导的惊叹句，谓语动词要用到虚拟语气，虚拟形式与wish后宾语从句的虚拟形式相同，表示“要是……就好了”。
If I could only see him once！
If only I had followed your advice！
四、倒装结构
英语的基本句型和汉语一样，一般也是主语在前、谓语在后的顺序。中文中有时语序也会发生一定的变化，但这些变化往往不是句法限定的，而是由于语义的需要而为之的。例如，
他已经完成了这些活儿的绝大部分。还可以说成：
这些活儿，他已经完成了绝大部分。
这些活儿，绝大部分他已经完成了。
英语中对于语序有着严格的规定，一般来说，只有主语与谓语位置的变化，才被称为倒装句。英语中，倒装句分为全部倒装和部分倒装，部分倒装又称为半倒装。
全倒装：整个谓语都放到主语前面。全倒装有以下三种情况：
1.当here, there, out, in, up, down等副词放在句首时，句子要全部倒装：
Here comes the bus.
Out came a man with a hat.
There are some letters for you on the table.
注意：这类句子中，如果主语是代词则不需要倒装。例如，
Here we are. This is the city library.
2.当方位状语出现在句首时，句子要全部倒装，这种句子结构和中文的语序很相似。例如，
In front of the house stopped a police car.门前停着一辆警车。
Under the tree sat a man, with a sword in his hand.树下坐着一个人，手里拿着一把剑。
Nearby were two canoes in which they had come to the island.旁边是他们来到岛上时乘坐的两艘独木舟。
3.直接引语中间或后面表示“某人说”这类意思时，句子要全部倒装。
“What does it mean？”asked the boy.
如果主语只有一个词，或谓语后面还有宾语时，主语仍放在动词前。
“She is the top student in my class.”Mary told me secretly.
4.在方式状语thus开头的句子。
Thus ended the investigation of the accident.
5.某些表示祝愿的句子。
Long live Chairman Mao！
半倒装：谓语的一部分出现在主语前面的时候称半倒装。在以下几种情况中要使用半倒装：
1.含有否定意义的副词或连词放在句首。例如：常用否定词有：never, not, hardly, scarcely, seldom, little, not until, not only……but also, no sooner……than, hardly（scarcely）……when等。
Not only did he overcharge me（他向我收费过高），but he didn't do a good repair job either.（2006年大纲样题）
Not until he had finished the mission（直到他完成使命）did he realize that he was seriously ill.（2008年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第91题）
The manager never laughed；neither did she lose her temper.（她也从来没有发过脾气）（2010年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
The university authorities did not approve the regulation, nor did he explain the reasons.（也没有解释为什么）（2011年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第87题）
I finally got the job I dreamed about. Never before in my life had I felt so excited.（我感到如此激动）（2012年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第87题）
Hardly had John finished his introductory remark when he was interrupted by the audience.（他就被听众打断了）（2012年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
No sooner had I got to the bus stop than the bus started.（注意时态）
注意：not only……but also连接两个并列主语时不需倒装。例如，
Not only you but also I like playing computer games.
2.only在句首用来强调状语。
Only when you have passed the tests required, can you apply for the driving license.（你才能申请驾驶执照）（2012年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第87题）
Only after they had performed hundreds of experiments, did they succeed in solving the problem.（他们才成功地解决了这个问题）（2013年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
注意：only被用来强调主语时不倒装：
Only she can help me solve this problem.
3.虚拟条件句中，如果if条件句中出现were, had, should时，可以把从句中if省略，将were, had或should放在主语的前面。（参看虚拟语气部分）
4.副词so在句首，有两种情况：
一是表示前面所说的情况也适合于另一个人或另一事物的肯定句中，此时需要用倒装句。例如
I can speak English, and so can she.
He has been ill for two days, and so has his wife.
He is interested in electronic devices, and so am I.
二是如果后面的句子只是单纯重复前句的意思，不表示也适用于另一人或事，则不用倒装结构。
-You've been invited to that party, haven't you？
-So I have. I'd forgotten.
5.so……that引导结果状语从句时，如将so部分移至句首时，主句语序倒装，that从句为正常语序。
So loudly did he speak that even people in the next room could hear him.
So badly had he been injured in the traffic accident（他在车祸中受伤）that he had to stay in the hospital for a whole year.（2013年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
6.表示频率的状语often, always, many a time等放到句首。
Often did we warn them not to do so.
Many a time has she helped me with my English.
7.带may的表示祝愿的句子。
May your country be prosperous and strong！
五、从句
（一）名词性从句
名词性从句是在句子中起名词作用的从句，它可以在句中充当主语（主语从句）、宾语（宾语从句）、表语（表语从句）和同位语（同位语从句）。名词性从句不管在句中起什么作用，都要使用正常语序。
1.主语从句
充当主语的从句叫做主语从句。主语从句通常由that, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom等连接代词以及how, when, where, why等连接副词来引导。
That we will win the match is certain.
What she did after class still remains a mystery.
Whether you follow her suggestion doesn't matter to me.
How Mike responded to such an insult surprises all of us.
注：that引导主语从句，仅仅起到引导词的作用，不充当主语从句的任何成分，但不能省略。what引导主语从句时，其在主语从句中要充当一定的成分，例如动词宾语等。
真题再现：What many people don't realize（很多人没有意识到）is that Simon is a lover of sports, and football in particular.（2009年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
真题解析：根据此题的题干，所给出的英文部分为系表结构，其中that引导表语从句。中文要翻译的部分充当句子的主语，其中包含动词“意识到”，因此，题目是要我们翻译一个主语从句。中文里，“意识到”后面的宾语被省略了；而在英文中，这个被省略的部分却是主语最重要的部分，不但充当了主语从句的引导词，还充当了主语从句中动词的宾语，在英文中，我们使用what来引导。
注：包含主语从句的句子常用it作形式主语，而主语从句常常被后置来保持句子的平衡。
It isn't strange that he should have left without telling you.
It won't make too much difference whether she will join us.
2.表语从句
充当表语的从句叫做表语从句。表语从句通常由that, whether, what, how, when, where, why, who, which等引导。
The trouble is where we could find the witness.
The question is whether the efforts are worth making.
真题再现：In my sixties, one change I notice is that I get tired more easily than before.（我比以前更容易累了）（2007年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
真题解析：此题目相当比较简单。英文句子的主干已经出现了，主语是one change，后面有系词is, that用了引导一个表语从句，我们只需要将表语从句补全就可以了。
3.同位语从句
在句子中，充当名词同位语的句子叫做同位语从句，同位语从句用来说明前面名词的具体内容，通常由that引导，也可以用连接性的代（副）词来引导。同位语的先行词通常为：belief, doubt, evidence, fact, hope, idea, message, news, plan, possibility, promise, proof, proposal, rumour, suggestion, theory, thought, truth等。
There is no doubt that she is qualified for the job.
There is a rumour that the famous singer has been killed.
The fact that our team has won the game is plain to everyone.
I had no idea why your parents didn't approve of your marrying John.
She always holds the false belief that she is most popular among the young.
真题再现：Some people hold the mistaken belief that our domestic products are always inferior to imported goods.（总是次于出口商品）（2013年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
真题解析：此句为that引导同位语从句修饰名词belief，用来说明这一错误信念的具体内容。汉译英部分的考点是be inferior to的固定词组。
注：同位语从句可用于下列结构中：
on condition that……在……条件下；倘若
the supposition that……假设；假定
with the exception that……除了……
in spite the fact that……尽管
with the probabilities that……等等。
He was allowed to go swimming on condition that he kept near other boys.
He is never spoiled in spite of the fact that he is the only child in the family.
4.宾语从句
用来充当宾语的句子叫做宾语从句。宾语从句一般用于及物动词之后，或用于介词之后。
（1）宾语从句的引导词
宾语从句常由that, what, how, when, where, which, who, why, whether等来引导。宾语从句的引导词及其用法特点如下表：
（2）宾语从句用于及物动词后
You couldn't imagine who did all these things.
I don't know whether such an answer is satisfactory.
Could you tell me what has happened to her these years？
真题再现：Specialists in intercultural studies say that it is not easy to adapt/adjust（oneself）to life in different cultures.（适应不同文化中的生活）（2006年12月大学英语四级考试真题第87题）
真题解析：试题句子主干中出现that引导的从句充当say的宾语。此宾语从句由it作形式主语，真正的主语由动词不定式来充当。汉译英部分主要考查固定词组adapt/adjust（oneself）to sth的用法，表示“适应……”。
真题再现：Some psychologists claim that people might feel lonely when they are far away from home.（出门在外时可能会感到孤单）（2006年12月大学英语四级考试真题第90题）
（3）介词后的宾语从句
介词后也可以用句子充当宾语。
What you will be in the future depends on what you are doing today.
She didn't say anything about how much effort had been taken to do this.
The test of any democratic society lies not in how well it can control expression but in whether it gives freedom of thought and expression the widest possible latitude.对任何民主社会的检验不在于它能多好地控制言论，而在于它是否尽可能宽松地赋予人们思想和表达的自由。
注：以that引导的从句很少用作介词的宾语，只有在except, in, but, besides, save等介词后才可使用。例如，
We know nothing about her save that her surname is Jones.
I've been lucky in that I have never had to worry about money.
She remembered nothing about him except that his hair was black.
（二）定语从句
用来充当定语的句子叫做定语从句。定语从句起形容词作用，在句子中修饰或限定前面的先行词（通常是名词或代词，有时也可以是整个主句）。引导定语从句的关系代词有that, which, who, whom等，关系副词有when, where, why等。定语从句分为限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句。
1.由关系代词引导的定语从句
（1）用作定语从句引导词的关系代词有who, whom, whose, that, which等等。其中
1）who, whom指人，who在从句中用作主语，也可以用作宾语；whom在从句中用作宾语。当who、whom在从句中作宾语，前边没有介词时，可以省略。例如，
Mr. Smith is one of the foreign experts who are working in Shanghai.
The man（who/whom）you spoke to just now is my teacher.
当who/whom充当的是介词宾语，且这个介词提到了引导词前面的话，引导词只能用whom。例如，
The man to whom you spoke just now is my teacher.
We need a monitor in whom every student has confidence（每个人都信任的）.
2）whose表示属格，在从句中用作定语，既可以指人，也可以指物。例如，
The residents, all of whose homes had been damaged by the flood（房屋全部被洪水毁坏的），were given help by the Red Cross.
例句分析：此题考到非限制性定语从句，从句的先行词是居民（residents）。根据中文题干，定语从句的主语应是“房屋”，其与先行词之间的关系只能用whose来表达，即这些被毁坏的房屋是属于居民的。
Our two countries are neighbors whose friendship will last forever.
3）that既可以指人也可以指物，在从句中既可以作主语又可以作宾语，当作宾语时，that可以省略。例如，
I can't find the letter that came this morning.
He is the man（that/who/whom）I want to see.
4）which指物，在从句中既可以作主语，又可以作宾语，当作宾语时，可以省略。当由which引导的定语从句以介词结尾，而且当介词不是用在非常严格的短语中的时候，这个介词要放到which的前面。
The planet on which we live is called the earth.
The plane which has just landed is from New York.
在which作引导词的定语从句中，which前面有时会出现一些限定的成分。例如，
Sound is a tool by means of which people communicate ideas with each other.
He has a large collection of books, many of which are written in English.
真题再现：Medical researchers are painfully aware that there are many problems（that）they haven't found solutions to/to which they haven't found solutions.（他们至今还没有答案）（2008年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第87题）
真题解析：此句考察定语从句的应用。根据中文提示，译文部分要作先行词problems的定语。由于先行词是物，此处又不存在所属关系，可以确定可以用that或which来引导。“找到问题的解决办法”译为“find solutions to problems”，这样，定语从句就要以介词to结尾。此时，如果用that作引导词，则介词不提前；如果用which作引导词，介词要放到which的前面。
真题再现：The prevention and treatment of AIDS is a field in which we can work together.（我们可以合作的领域）（2007年6月大学英语四级考试第88题）
真题解析：此句，我们要结合定语从句的先行词在定语从句中所充当的成分来判断。首先，在中文提示中，“我们可以合作的”作定语修饰“领域”。如果我们把“领域”这个名词带回到定语从句中，把原来的词组变为一个完整句子的时候，这部分就变成了“我们可以在这个领域合作”，即We can work together in this field。“this field”的含义由定语从句的引导词which来体现，介词in与其关系密切，从而提到了which的前面。
（2）关系代词that的特殊用法
1）当all, anything, everything, the only one, the one等作定语从句的先行词时，一般用that而不用which引导，that作宾语时常被省略。
Do you have got everything you need？
She was the only person that could accomplish this task.
All that is needed is a continuous supply of the basic necessities of life.
2）当先行词前有形容词最高级、序数词修饰时，常用关系代词that引导定语从句。
This is the second time（that）she's been abroad.
This is the most thrilling film（that）I have ever seen.
The first thing（that）we should do now is to work out a plan.
2.由关系副词引导的定语从句
关系副词有表示地点的where、表示时间的when和表示原因的why，它们在定语从句中充当状语。
（1）where作关系副词，引导定语从句，修饰前面表示地点的先行词。
That's the company where my brother worked three years ago.
When you read books, you had better make a mark at the spot where you have any question.
如果在定语从句中不充当状语，即使先行词表示地点，也不能用where。例如，
Have you visited the imperial palace which was built several hundred years ago？
（2）when作关系副词，引导定语从句，修饰前面表示时间的先行词，在从句中作时间状语。
The day when we stop learning is the day when we die.
We will put off the picnic until next week, when the weather may be better.
如果在定语从句中不充当状语，即使先行词表示时间，也不能用when。例如，I'll never forget those days that we spent on campus.
（3）why作关系副词，引导定语从句，修饰前面表示原因的先行词，在从句中作原因状语。
I know the reason why he was absent from school the day before yesterday.
The reason why the injection needs repeating every year is that the virus changes.
（4）表示方式的定语从句
在英语中，由于how不能作为表示方式的关系副词，若要表示方式，只能借助其他手段。英文中用：“the way+（that）从句”，“the way in which”这两种句型。例如，
Others will treat you the way you treat them.
I can't grasp the way in which these two substances react on each other.
因此，在表示方式的定语从句中，我们借助了关系代词的手段，表达了关系副词的意义。
3.非限制性定语从句
（1）与限制性定语从句的区别
限制性定语从句是先行词不可缺少的定语。如果没有它，主句的意思就不完整。在这种复合句中，主句和从句之间不用逗号分开。例如，
The boy who is playing basketball is my neighbor.
此句中如果去掉定语从句，则让人无法界定boy的具体所指，会引发歧义。
非限制性定语从句可省略，省略后主句的意义仍然完整。主句与从句之间用逗号隔开，从句作为附加的成分，说明先行词。
His lecture, which went on and on, bored everyone.
（2）在非限定性定语从句中，关系代词不能用that，关系代词和关系副词都不能省略。
All the books, which have pictures in them, mustn't be taken away from this room.
They saw in the preceding hundred years from 1650 to 1750，when English was still a completely agricultural country, a period of great abundance and prosperity.
（3）which可以引导非限定性定语从句，修饰整个主句。另外，which在从句中作主语时，谓语动词要用第三人称单数形式。
His wife is always finding fault with him, which makes him rather angry.
4.定语从句与同位语从句的区别
同位语从句多数由that引导，that只起连接作用，在从句中不作任何的语法成分。而定语从句的关系代词that在句中充当主语或宾语。
A century ago, Freud formulated his revolutionary theory that dreams were the shadows of our unconscious desires and fears.
A century ago, Freud formulated his revolutionary theory that has just been proved to be true by modern neuroscience.
（三）状语从句
用来充当状语的句子叫做状语从句。根据其所表达的分句之间的联系，状语从句可分为时间状语从句、地点状语从句、原因状语从句、结果状语从句、目的状语从句、条件状语从句、让步状语从句、方式状语从句和比较状语从句共九种。
1.时间状语从句
时间状语从句用来表示谓语动词发生的时间，常用的连接词有：when, whenever, as, while, before, after, until, till, since, once, the first time, every time等。
While I was in Madrid, there was a carnival.（while后接延续性动词）
I had no sooner left the house than it began to rain.
Every time I turned to her, she never let me down.
Once you understand this rule, you'll have no further difficulty.
As he grew older, he lost interest in everything except gardening.
On a rainy day I was driving north through Vermont when I noticed a young man holding up a sign reading“Boston”.（此处when相当于“at that time”之意）
Doing your homework is a sure way to improve your test scores, and this is especially true when it comes to classroom tests.（when it comes to……的结构，表示“当提到……”）
It was not until the 19th century that the newspaper became the dominant pre-electronic medium.
注意：此处not……until句型用于强调句中。正常的句式是“The newspaper didn't become the dominant pre-electronic medium until the 19th century.”
在not……until的强调句句型中，去掉强调句的结构标志“It is/was……that”，not……until就被置于句首，此时主句要用部分倒装的形式。上句就写成“Not until the 19th century did the newspaper become the dominant pre-electronic medium.”
真题再现：Scientists agree that it will be a long time before we find the cure for cancer.（我们找到治疗癌症的方法）（2009年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
真题解析：此句的主干是that引导的宾语从句。宾语从句的部分出现before引导的时间状语从句。翻译的部分比较简单，主要考点在于名词cure的用法：cure后面要接介词“for+疾病”作cure的定语。
这里要注意的是什么样的句子会用到before引导的时间状语从句。当然，很多情况下，句子中出现“在……之前”时会使用before。例如，
The doctor may seek the agreement of a relative before she carries out the procedure.
但是，如果我们把真题的句子译为“科学家认为，在我们找到治疗癌症的方法之前要有很长时间。”句子就不是很通顺。我们为了译文的地道，把句子做简单的调整，把before译为“才”。全句的翻译就变为“科学家认为，要经过很长时间我们才会找到治疗癌症的方法”。再如，
原文：在这家工厂，一项建议往往要等上数月之后才会被考虑。
译文：In this factory, suggestions often have to wait for months before they are fully considered.
注：有一些名词和副词也可以作连词用，表示“一……就……”，相当于as soon as。如the moment, the minute, the instant, the second, immediately, directly, instantly等等。例如，
I recognized her the instant I saw her.
I went home directly I had finished work.
Instantly I saw her, I held out my hand first.
2.地点状语从句
地点状语从句用来表示谓语动词发生的地点，其关联词有where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere等。
Sit anywhere you like.
Where there is a will, there is a way.有志者，事竟成。
Everywhere I looked, there were flowers and smiling faces.
Wherever she goes, there are crowds of people waiting to see her.
3.原因状语从句
原因状语从句表示谓语动词发生的原因，其关联词有because, as, since, for, in that, now（that）等连词。
My friends dislike me because I'm handsome and successful.
Since we don't have class tomorrow, why not go out for a picnic？
As Wednesday is a national holiday, all government offices will be closed.
It rained last night, for the ground is wet this morning.
The girl is like her mother in that she also has very delicate feeling.
Now that the semester is finished, I'm going to rest a few days and then take a trip.
真题再现：I would prefer shopping online to shopping in a department store because shopping online（the former）is more convenient and can save time.（它更方便和省时）（2007年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
注意：because, since, as, for均表示“因为，由于”，because语气最强，用以回答why，其引出的往往是人们不知道或最感兴趣的原因。because可与强调词only, just以及否定词not连用。Since通常置于句首，引出人们已知的、不需强调的原因，所以常被译为“既然……”。As与since的用法差不多，所引出的理由在说话人看来已经很明显了。for则是逻辑上的理由，即根据所产生的结果来推断造成这种结果的理由，这种理由起着补充说明的作用，通常放在第一个分句后。
4.结果状语从句
结果状语从句表结果，常用的连词有so……（that），such……that等。so后面接形容词或副词，而such后要接名词。我们也可以用so that, such that来引导结果状语从句，从句都有放在主句之后。
It was such a boring speech that I fell asleep.
He was so ill that we had to send for a doctor.
She worked hard so that everything would be ready by 6 o'clock.
The damage was such that it would cost too much money to repair.
注：such that引导结果状语从句时，such相当于“so+形容词”。例如上句中的such相当于so serious。
在英文中，so……that引导的结果状语从句，为了强调，可以将主句中的so所引导的部分置于句首从而构成倒装结构。
So fast does the light travel that it is difficult for us to imagine its speed.
5.目的状语从句
目的状语从句表示谓语动词的目的，常用的连词有so, so that, in order that等。目的状语从句常用情态动词may（might），有时亦用shall（should）和will（would），有时还可用can（could）。目的状语从句多置于主句之后。
I decided to stay longer so that she might not feel lonely.
They got up very early in order that they could catch the school bus.
此外，lest（唯恐；以免），in case（万一）和for fear that（唯恐）也可以引导目的状语从句，但有否定含义，后面常用“should+动词原形”表示虚拟语气。（详见虚拟语气第三节）
6.条件状语从句
条件状语从句表示主句发生的条件，分为真实条件句和虚拟条件句两种。前者表示现实的或可能成为现实的条件，后者表示与现实情况相反或不太可能变为现实的条件。关于虚拟条件句在虚拟语气一章已经详细讨论了，这里只讨论真实条件句。
真实条件状语从句用直陈语气，其关联词有if, unless, suppose, supposing, as（so）long as, on condition that, provided（that）等。
You'll fail in French unless you work harder.
Supposing（that）you are wrong, what will you do？
As long as we keep playing well, we'll keep winning games.
She may come with us provided（that）she arrives in time.
I am sure he is up to the job if only he would give his mind to it.（if only=as long as只要）
You may borrow the book, on condition that you do not lend it to anyone else.
7.让步状语从句
让步状语从句表“虽然”“尽管”“即使”等概念，常用的连词有though, although, even though/if, as, while（用于句首），no matter how/where/what/which/who, whatever, wherever, whenever, whichever, whoever等，此时，主句前不可用but，但可用yet/still。
Child as he is, he is knowledge.（名词提前时，名词前面的冠词省略）
Although he tried hard，（yet）he（still）failed.
Although he is young, he could speak English smoothly.
=Young as he is, he could speak English smoothly.
While I admit that there are problems, I don't agree that they cannot be solved.
The family is the essential presence-the thing that never leaves you, even if you find you have to leave it.
There are over 80 night schools in the city, making it possible for a professional to be re-educated no matter what he does.
I've already told you that I'm going to buy it, however much it costs.
真题再现：Leaving one's job, whatever（no matter what）job it is，（不管是什么工作），is a difficult change even for those who look forward to retiring.（2008年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
真题再现：No matter how many mistakes you've made（不管你出了多少错），you are still ahead of those who won't try.（2013年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第87题）
真题再现：It's true that we are not always going to succeed in our ventures, even though we have invested time and money.（即使我们投入时间和金钱）（2013年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
8.方式状语从句
方式状语从句表动作，行为的方式，常用的连词有：（just）as……so, as, as if, as though。其中as if, as though引出的状语从句常常用虚拟语气（详见虚拟语气）。
（Just）As his name is, so is he.
As you sow, so will you reap.
They believe in what they sought, just as I believed in my job.
9.比较状语从句
比较状语从句也是一种方式状语从句，其常用的连词有as……as, not so……as, than, the+比较级，the+比较级……等。
He doesn't play volleyball as well as his sister（does）.
America had a market eight times larger than any competitor.
This dress is twice（three times）as expensive as that one（is）.
真题再现：The more you explain, the more confused I am.（我愈糊涂）（2006年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
真题再现：Since my childhood I have found that nothing is more attractive to me than reading（没有什么比读书对我更有吸引力）.（2006年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
真题再现：Fred bought a car last week.It is one thousand pounds cheaper than mine（比我的车便宜一千英镑）.（2012年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第88题）
六、强调句型
强调是进行思想交流的重要手段，它可以突出重要内容，增加对比效果与感情色彩。英文中强调常见的表现形式如下：
1.词汇手段
（1）用助动词do或其变化形式does, did来强调句中谓语动词，用来加强陈述句和祈使句的语气，译作“的确”“一定”“确实”。
He does know you are his best friend.
Do write and let me know how you're getting on.
-You should have warned me.-But I did warn you.
2.用形容词，副词或者否定词very, right, never, ever, even, still, single, simply, just, only, too等来表示强调。
It is cold there even in July.
You are the right person I want to see.
These pills are the very thing for your cold.
Tom is tall, but Mary is taller still/still taller.（still加在比较级的前面或者后面，起强调作用）
It is quite simply the most ridiculous idea I've ever heard.
The plane was brought down safely and not a single passenger was killed.
（3）重复使用同一个词来加强语气，可重复使用的词一般是动词、副词、形容词和名词。
This guest of guests is a man of men.这位最尊敬的客人是位了不起的人。
He tried and tried again, but failed at last.
Happy, happy were those days I lived with my parents.我与父母生活在一起的那些日子是最最幸福的。
（4）用“at all”，“in no way”，“by all means”，“by no means”，“only too”，“all too”，“in the world”，“on earth”，“under the sun”等来加强疑问或否定语气。
He is in no way superior to me in knowledge.
What on earth（=in the world）are you doing？
I'm not in the least（=not at all）afraid of you any more.
Beggars are becoming an all/only too familiar sight in our cities.（用了强调一个你不希望存在的事实）
（5）用反身代词表示强调。
I myself will present the prizes.
You said so yourself only last week.
2.句型手段
（1）用感叹句来表示强烈的感情，突出说话人的情感。
What a lovely view！
How kind of you to help！
（2）用倒装句来加强语气。
Only in this way can this problem be solved.
Under the tree sits a boy, who is reading a book attentively.
（详见倒装句）
（3）用what引导的名词性从句或wh-疑问词+ever构成的复合词引导的状语从句来强调从句中的主语、宾语或状语等。
Wherever there is injustice, we try to help.
What that kid needs is some love and affection.
（详见名词性从句及状语从句）
（4）强调句型
强调句型：It is（was）+被强调部分+that（who）……，又被成为分裂句，常用来强调句子的某一成分。被强调部分可以是主语、宾语或状语；强调的主语如果是人，结构中用that和who都可以。例如，
Smith sent his wife a bunch of roses on Valentine's Day.
根据上下文和语义意图，说话人可以通过不同的分裂句分别强调主语、间接宾语、直接宾语、状语，使之成为信息中心。
强调主语：It was Smith that/who sent his wife a bunch of roses on Valentine's Day.
强调间接宾语：It was his wife that Smith sent a bunch of roses to on Valentine's Day.
强调直接宾语：It was a bunch of roses that Smith sent his wife on Valentine's Day.
强调时间状语：It was on Valentine's Day that Smith sent his wife a bunch of roses.
另外，要注意下面几点：
1）在强调主语时，that后的谓语动词要与被强调者保持人称和数的一致。
It is Smith that always helps me with my lessons.
2）即使被强调的主语是复数，主句中的谓语动词也用单数。
It is those scientists who say that the global temperature will grow higher and higher.
3）原句的谓语动词如果是现在或将来的各种时态，用It is……that（who）……；如果原句谓语动词是过去各种时态，则用It was……that（who）……
4）强调句中除了强调时间状语之外，还能强调地点状语和方式状语等。
It was at the airport that I met my teacher last night.
It was very willingly that she agreed to marry him.
强调句也可以强调由because引导的原因状语从句。
It is because her parents got divorced when she was young that she is afraid of marriage.
It is because I never complain that people think I'm quite satisfied.
如果就此处强调的部分进行提问的话，这两句话应变为：
Why is it that she is afraid of marriage？
Why is it that people think I'm quite satisfied？
但是强调句不可以强调由since/as引导的原因状语从句，也不可以强调由although引导的让步状语从句。
5）强调句也不能用来强调句子的表语。如在英语中没有：
It is really wonderful that our trip is.（错）
It is monitor of our class that she is.（错）
但是，强调句能够强调宾语补足语。
It is the monitor of our class that we elected her.
It is pink that she'd like to paint her room.
6）在强调not……until结构时，要用固定的强调句型：It is（was）not until……that……。注意此时原句的not……until……要变成not until……，until后面的内容仍然跟在后面，that从句中的谓语动词要用肯定式。
I cannot comment further until I have all the information.
It is not until I have all the information that I can comment further.
We didn't get the first reports of trouble until six o'clock.
It was not until six o'clock that we got the first reports of trouble.
7）在强调一般疑问句中的某一成分时，主句仍用一般疑问句的语序。that后面要用陈述句语序。
Does she make her own clothes？
Is it she who makes her own clothes？
8）特殊疑问句中只有疑问词可以强调，其强调结构是“疑问词+is（was）it that……？”，that后面要用陈述句语序。
Where does she come from？
Where is it that she comes from？
9）强调句可以用作宾语从句。
He told me that it was because he was late for class that he was punished.
I really can't remember when it was that we first met each other.
10）强调句中的谓语动词be还可以采取复杂的形式。
It might have been Smith who sent a bunch of roses to his wife on Valentine's Day.
11）被强调的名词或代词可带有一个定语从句。
Was it Bill, who plays football well, that helped the blind man cross the road？
It was in the school, where I once studied, that we hold a party.
Was it in the house, which we visited last year, that the murder happened？
真题再现：George called his boss from the airport, but it was his assistant who answered the telephone（接电话的却是他的助手）.（2011年6月大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
真题解析：根据题干中中文的汉语，此句强调的是“他的助手”是接电话的人，因此选用强调句句型。此句主句“打电话”的动作为一般过去时态，说明“接电话”的动作也应该是一般过去时态。“接电话”在英语中译为“answer the telephone”。
真题再现：It's my mother who/that keeps encouraging me not to lose heart（一直在鼓励我不要灰心）when I have difficulties in my studies.（2011年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第89题）
真题再现：It is man's intellect that separates/distinguishes him from other higher animals（才智使他区别于其他高等动物）.（2012年12月大学英语四级考试翻译第90题）
真题解析：此句考强调句型，强调部分是“man's intellect”，强调部分为物，因此连接词选用that。that后面用到固定词组separate/distinguish……from……的句型表示区分。由于separate/distinguish的主语是man's intellect，为单数形式，因此separate/distinguish要变为第三人称单数形式。