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The book Laozi was written around the sixth century BC. The author is generally believed to be Lao Dan, or Laozi – a recluse who lived during the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC). Few records have survived about Lao Dan, who was said to have once held a low civil position in the royal court, in charge of the archival records of the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BC). Yet, due to his great learning, even Confucius was said to have traveled miles to consult him.
Laozi ( Laozi ), also known as Classic of the Way and Virtue ( Dao de jing ), consists of just over 5,000 Chinese characters. Its 81 chapters are divided into two parts, Dao (the Way) and De (Virtue). Short as it is, the book has played a tremendous role in the development of Chinese culture. It became the basis of Daoism, the school of philosophy parallel to Confucianism in ancient China. The thought of Laozi formed the foundation of Daoism, the most influential indigenous school of religion in China. It has also exerted a direct impact on the characteristics, trends of thought and aesthetic sensibilities of the Chinese nation. Today Laozi still plays a role in the development of Chinese thinking.
Laozi was first introduced into Europe possibly as early as the 15th century and has been one of the most translated philosophical works of ancient China. Many of Laozi's enlightening views are based on his philosophy of naturalness and non-action.
"Naturalness" is an important concept of Laozi's philosophy. It refers to a natural state of being, an attitude of following the way of nature. Laozi emphasized that everything in the world has its own way of being and development: birds fly in the sky, fish swim in the water, clouds float in the sky, flowers bloom and flowers fall. All these phenomena occur independently and naturally without following any human will, and humans should not try to change anything natural. Laozi admonished people to give up on any desire to control the world. Following the way of nature is the way to resolving conflicts between humans and the world.
"Non-action" is another important concept of Laozi's philosophy. It is the guarantee of "naturalness." Laozi said, “( Dao or the Way) acts through non-action," by which he did not mean that one should do nothing and passively wait for something to be achieved. Neither did he deny human creativity. What he meant is that human enterprises should be built on the basis of naturalness, not on any attempts to interrupt the rhythm of nature. Human creativity should be in compliance with the ways of nature.
Laozi said, "Great ingenuity appears to be stupidity." This is the essence of "naturalness" and "non-action." "Great ingenuity" refers to the highest level of ingenuity, arising so naturally that it does not resemble ingenuity at all. Ingenuity can be achieved through human effort, but "great ingenuity" is superior to ordinary ingenuity. To Laozi, resorting to deceit is true futility and would accomplish just the opposite result. Those who intend to play tricks are not genuine and therefore are not natural. Deceit is detrimental to naturalness and to the harmony of life.
Zhuangzi (369-286 BC), the philosopher who carried on Laozi's philosophy, had the following story to tell about a "useless tree":
A carpenter went with his apprentice to the State of Qi. On the way they came across a giant tree by the local temple for the deity of the earth. Its trunk was several dozen meters thick and as tall as a mountain. Its branches could provide shade to several thousand cattle. While people thronged to worship the super tree, the carpenter passed it without taking a look. The apprentice, however, was fascinated. After carefully studying the tree, he ran to catch up with his master and asked, "Ever since I became your apprentice, I have never seen such fine wood. But you just kept walking without even looking at it. Why?" The master replied, "That tree produces useless wood. If you made a boat out of it, the boat would sink. If you made a coffin out of it, the coffin would soon rot. If you made utensils out of it, they would wear out quickly. Its wood is of no use at all. That is why this tree has been able to live so long." The wisdom of the "useless tree" lies exactly in its uselessness, or its naturalness.
Bamboo strips inscribed with the text of Laozi, unearthed in Guodian, Hubei Province. These bamboo strips were buried in the tomb of an aristocrat of the State of Chu, c. 300 BC. This is the earliest version of Laozi discovered so far.
On the basis of "naturalness" and "non-action," Laozi proposed the view of "overcoming the strong by being weak." The era Laozi lived in was replete with endless wars. Therefore, war was an important theme for philosophers, and anti-war thinking was the norm. Even the great strategist Sunzi advocated "winning a war without fighting it," not to mention the great thinker Confucius, who strongly championed a government based on love. Their contemporary Mozi (c. 468-376 BC), founder of Mohism, also condemned wars while calling for "love for all."
Calligraphy from Laozi by the Yuan-dynasty calligrapher Xianyu Shu (1246-1302)
According to Laozi, war springs from humanity's bloated desires. Conflict arises out of people's struggles to satisfy their desires, and conflict escalates into war. Therefore, Laozi's philosophy is based on "non-contention." To him, human striving and competitive strife is the root cause of decline; desiring nothing is the natural way of life.
Laozi said, "The greatest virtue is like water." He compared his philosophy of "non-contention" to water, to distinguish it from the law of the jungle. He said, "Water nourishes everything but contends for nothing." To Laozi, humans tend to seek higher positions while water always flows to lower places. Driven by desire, humans like whatever they think is superior while despising whatever they think is inferior. Yet water always flows downward. As the source of life, water nourishes all living things on Earth. No life can exist without water. Water contributes to the world without regard for gain or loss. Remaining low, level and tranquil, water embraces and reflects everything under heaven. The way of water is completely different from the way of people with avid desires.
But the philosophy of Laozi is by no means weak. On the contrary, it is full of strength. According to Laozi, water accumulates great strength in its weakness and quietude. Its strength can break down all barriers in the world. He said, "Nothing in the world is weaker than water. Yet nothing is stronger than water when it comes to breaking something strong." Water is a typical example of the weak winning over the strong. Water is invincible because it desires nothing and contends for nothing.
A corner of Geyuan Garden in Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province. The landscape embodies the concept of naturalness in Daoist philosophy.
Laozi said, "Aware of the strong, one should remain weak." This does not mean that Laozi promoted failure. To become strong, however, one must not oppress the weak. Instead, one should start with one's own weak points, accumulating strength by keeping low, just as water does. Giving up the desire to flaunt one's superiority is the basic way to prosperity.
Remaining weak is not only the way to prosperity, but also the way to preserving life. Laozi regarded fragility as the symbol of life. He explained this with a comparison between life and death: when a person is alive, his body is fragile; when he dies, his body becomes hard and rigid. The same is true with plants: living plants have supple leaves and lovely flowers, while dead plants become dry and hard. Laozi uses these examples to show that the way of the weak is the way to preserving life. The way of the weak is the best way to avoid conflict.
Laozi saw the world as a madding crowd of vanity. He chose to live a simple, quiet life, and to keep his mind undisturbed in the face of temptation. He said he would rather remain a "newborn baby."
This does not mean Laozi wanted to remain childishly ignorant. He believed that sages – people with the highest virtue – all resembled newborns. The highest level of one's cultivation was to return to the state of a newborn baby.
The state of the newborn is free of any knowledge, desire, impurity or falsehood. Laozi's state of the newborn refers to "complete innocence." The first cry of a baby when it leaves the mother's womb is pure and clear, which, according to Laozi, is the call of genuine life.
When human beings come into the world, they gradually acquire external knowledge and accept social norms, along with the growth of their bodies. Step by step, their originally pure minds become tainted with chaotic colors. As humans mature, they become more and more hypocritical. The process of acculturation is the process of losing one's true self.
To Laozi, civilization is to a certain degree a departure from the "true self." The development of human culture is a process of "decoration": clothing as decoration of the body, houses as decoration of the way of living, language as decoration of communication, and state politics as decoration of human organization.
Such "decorations" often turn into bloated desires. Desire-driven, human beings fight and deceive one another, leading to war. Laozi made a comparison between the laws of nature and the laws of the human world. Nature takes from the surplus to make up the deficit, such as the wind leveling sand dunes and the water washing away earth and stones. The human world is just the opposite, i.e., robbing the poor and oppressing the weak.
Bloated desire has damaged the external world as well as poisoned the human mind. Laozi said, "Beautiful colors blind the eyes, complex music harms the ears, rich flavors numb taste, while riding and hunting madden the mind." Desire disturbs peace of mind. If immersed in a sea of desire, in the end humans would be submerged.
