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The Silk Road refers to a transport route connecting ancient China with Central Asia, West Asia, Africa, and the European continent. It appeared as early as the second century and was traveled mainly by silk merchants. The term "Silk Road," or " die Seidenstrasse " in German, was first noted down by the German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen at the end of the 19th century.
The Silk Road began in Chang'an (present-day Xi'an, capital of Shaanxi Province), passing through Gansu and Xinjiang to Central Asia, West Asia, and to lands by the Mediterranean. There were no signs of communication between ancient Chinese civilization and Mediterranean civilization in earlier history. In about the seventh century BC, the ancient Greeks began to learn about an ancient civilization to the east, yet knew little about it. Before the Silk Road, according to archeological findings, there had already existed an intermittent trade route on the grasslands from the Yellow River and Indus River drainage areas to the Euphrates and Tigris, and the Nile drainage areas. Yet real communication between China, Central and West Asian countries, Africa and the European continent did not develop until the opening of the Silk Road.
The Silk Road functioned not only as a trade route, but also as a bridge that linked the ancient civilizations of China, India, the Mesopotamian plains, Egypt, and Greece. It also helped to promote the exchange of science and technology between east and west. The Silk Road served as the main channel for ancient China to open up to the outside world, as well as for fresh impulses from other cultures to enter the country, which contributed a significant share to the shaping of Chinese culture.
Yongchang ("everlasting prosperity") brocade of the Eastern Han Dynasty, showing a high level of textile technology
The pioneer who blazed the trail of the Silk Road was Zhang Qian (c. 164-114 BC), a general of the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 25). In Zhang Qian's time, the Chinese had little knowledge about Central and West Asian countries, Africa or Europe, although they were aware of the existence of many different countries and cultures in faraway places to the west.
During the reign of Emperor Wu (r.140-87 BC), there were 36 small kingdoms in the Western Regions (present-day Xinjiang and parts of Central Asia). All of them were later conquered by the Huns, who then posed a direct threat to the Western Han and blocked the dynasty's path west. Under these circumstances, Emperor Wu appointed Zhang Qian to lead a team of more than 100 envoys to the Western Regions. The mission was to unite the Indo-Scythic people against the Huns, who once killed their chieftain. Zhang Qian's team set out in 138 BC. No sooner had they entered the Hexi Corridor (northwest of present-day Gansu Province), when they were captured by the Huns. After being held under house arrest for over ten years, Zhang Qian and only one other remaining envoy managed to escape and return to Chang'an in 126 BC. Their accounts about the Western Regions were a revelation to the Han emperor and his ministers.
Diamond-pattern embroidery of the Western Han Dynasty
In the next two decades, Emperor Wu launched three major campaigns against the Huns, forcing them to retreat from the Western Regions. In 119 BC, the emperor sent Zhang Qian on a second mission to the Western Regions. This time Zhang Qian went further west, while his deputies reached more than a dozen countries in South and West Asia, and the Mediterranean.
Zhang Qian's two missions to the Western Regions opened up the road to the west. Emperor Wu adopted a series of measures to strengthen ties with the Western Regions, including encouraging Han people to trade there. Soon the route was bustling with caravans of camels carrying goods of all types and reverberating with the tinkling of their bells. Through the Silk Road, trade flourished between China and Central, South and West Asian countries, Africa, and Europe. In 166, envoys from Rome arrived via the Silk Road in Chang'an, where they set up an embassy.
The Silk Road also facilitated active trade between India, Southeast Asia, West Asia, Africa, and Europe. The exchange of new goods and technologies from different continents greatly helped to promote the development of all the civilizations involved.
Bird-and-flower embroidery of the Northern Song Dynasty
The Silk Road exerted an inestimable influence on the lives of the Chinese people. While Chinese culture and technology, such as papermaking and printing, were introduced to countries to the west, China also absorbed many elements from the arts, philosophy and religions of many other countries. This helped to promote an open policy toward other cultures from the Han to Tang dynasties.
The Silk Road highlights a period of history when China looked west for a farther vision of the world. To the east, apart from the islands of the Pacific and Japan, the country faced only a huge ocean. To the west, in contrast, there were many countries in the Western Regions and beyond. By the tenth century, Chinese explorers had already realized there were rich countries, attractive goods and artworks, and different peoples beyond the Western Regions. This aroused great interest in the "west" among ancient Chinese people.
Buddhism, for example, was first introduced to Khotan Kingdom (covering present-day Hetian area of Xin jiang) in the Western Regions in 87, and then gradually spread to the Central Plains along both the southern and northern routes of the Silk Road. This religion has since exerted a huge influence not only on Chinese beliefs but also on the development of Chinese thinking. Nestorianism and Islam were also introduced to China through the Silk Road.
Cultures and arts from other lands have left valuable legacies along the Silk Road, such as the murals in the Gaochang, Kuche and Dunhuang grottoes. They stand as evidence of a stunning blend of Chinese and western art and culture.
Shiva and Parvati
A mural in Niuche Cave, Kuche, Xinjiang
As Buddhism spread east along the Silk Road, many large temples and grottoes were built in oases, housing exquisite statues and murals. Most of them have been destroyed or damaged over the centuries, yet some have survived, especially the murals in grottoes. Of these, the murals of the Qiuci Kingdom, covering today's Kuche area in Xinjiang, are some of the most remarkable.
While most of the grotto murals in Kuche depict Buddhist tales, a number of them attract special attention by representing a rich mix of the ancient cultures of China, India, Egypt, Greece, Mesopotamia, and Central Asia.
A mural in Mogui ("devil") Cave, Kuche, Xinjiang
Some paintings depict images of the Buddha with a bright aura emitting from his arms, legs and feet. Flying apsaras are seen playing all sorts of musical instruments, such as the pipa, panpipe and flute. The sun god sits on a two-wheeled chariot, and the golden-winged king of birds appears either as a two-headed eagle or an eagle with a human head. Seahorses with wings in flight and doves holding rings of flowers in their beaks bear a clear resemblance to Greek art.
Shiva, wearing a colorful robe, has three human heads, one animal head, and three hands. Parvati (also spelled Parvathi or Parvathy, a Hindu goddess and nominally the second consort of Shiva) sports earrings and beautiful jewelry on her head, arms and hands. Some frescos depict Persian kings and knights in helmets and suits of armor, and artists in Egyptian-style black wigs holding brushes and palettes in their hands.
Many pictures portray scenes of song and dance. Among the many musical instruments, ranging from those of China (panpipe and ruanxian , a plucked instrument), Persia (pipa, suona , a woodwind instrument, and the vertical konghou , a plucked instrument with five to 25 strings), India (bowed konghou and a five-stringed instrument), and Greece ( lila , a plucked stringed instrument), are also seen a wide variety of flutes, horns and drums.
A mural in Yueshi ("musician") Cave, Kuche, Xinjiang
God of Heaven, # a mural in one of the Kuche grottoes
Singing Goddess, a mural in one of the grottoes in Kuche, Xinjiang
Dancers can be divided into solos and duets. Single male dancers usually sport long scarves, which fly in the air as the dancers swirl rapidly. Female soloists wear only capes and necklaces of pearls and jade on their naked bodies. Duets comprise a male and a female of different complexions. The male usually sports Buddhist robes and has his arm on the female's shoulders or around her neck in an intimate manner. The female wears a pair of pants with flared bottoms and plays a bowed konghou in a most feminine posture. Their bodies curve in an S shape, with both the male and female in a duet dance on half-tiptoes. The dancing style represents that of India and West Asia.
Most outstanding of the murals in Kuche are a large number of nude human images, especially of beautiful female bodies. These include many female acolytes listening to the Buddha espousing Buddhist teachings. Highlights are the female dancers with S-shape body contours, full breasts and round buttocks. These paintings show a clear influence of Indian and Greek art, especially Buddhist art from India.
A fine example is the mural depicting what scholars call "Mahamaya (mother of Gautama) bathing." The young lady, uncovered except for her private parts, stands crossed-legged under a tree with fire-shaped flowers. She sports a few flowing ribbons on her body and jewelry around her neck and wrists. Two maids are kneeling in front of her. Two other girls are walking towards the tree, each holding a jar of water on her shoulder. Their costumes have wave-like patterns with dark-yellow hems and their water jars evoke an ancient Greek style. The mural as a whole features both Greek and Indian artistic influences.
Another fresco bearing clear Greek and Indian connections has a king and his queen as subjects. The king, with a pale yellow complexion, sits cross-legged in the center. His wife sits on his right, resting her left hand on the king's shoulder. The queen wears assorted jewelry on her naked body, including three gold chains around her waist that tie into a knot in the front of her body. She wears snake-shaped leggings, and both she and the king wear earrings. The king has bright eyes and handsome features. He is holding the hand of a child, and a Buddhist monk is kneeling in front of him. A lady in Greek costume behind the child is speaking excitedly to the king. Two servants stand behind the king and queen, with their palms pressed together in Buddhist greeting.
The Kuche grotto murals represent a rich treasure-house left by the Silk Road. They are historical confirmation that the exchanges and integration of different civilizations bring forth the most brilliant flowers of art.