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A Introduction
General Survey of the Forces Acting upon Chinese Education
Education as a social institution and process is constantly influenced by the political, social, economic, and physical forces of the environment in which education is carried on. These forces may be favorable or unfavorable to the development of education. They may handicap the orderly working out of educational schemes as well as stimulate further educational activities. In order to secure a better understanding of Chinese education in this year, it is necessary to have before us a picture of the more important forces that have been acting and reacting upon educational thought and practice during the same period.
Politically the year opens with a nationwide dissatisfaction over the election of Tsou Kun to the Presidency on October 10, 1923. It was felt that this election must inevitably breed internal war, although at that time no one could tell when such a war would come. It is the teachers of the land who worry most, because many of them have felt that the example of one election would be powerful enough to nullify the educational effort of ten years. The schoolman cannot but be stimulated to consider how through education the character of future representatives could be trained if representative government is a good thing for this country. Education for citizenship as a movement has here received its great momentum.
Following the election, the leaders of different political parties began to ally themselves in a united front against the Chihli Party. Dr. Sun Yat-sen, Marshals Tuan Chi-shui and Chang Tso-ling, although differing on national policies, are one in their effort against Tsou Kun and Wu Pei-fu. In less than a year's time, we find the Chihli Party and the Anti-Chihli Parties meeting on the battlefield.The expenses involved in military operations on both sides are estimated at not less than twenty million dollars gold. If the loss of civilian property and the harvest is included, no less than seventy-five million dollars gold have been lost in this present war.
The year begins with a military force of one and one-half million soldiers.The preparation for hostilities on all sides nearly throughout the year has greatly increased the number of soldiers at public expense.The total expenditure for army purposes has been estimated to be about one hundred fifty million dollars gold.This is the burden of militarism on the Chinese people.
Militarism and the present war as its result have affected education in two ways. In the first place, they have drained away enormous resources which might have been turned into the development of education. In the second place, they serve to stimulate the introduction of vocational education into the armies.The educators had constantly in their minds the demobilization of soldiers as one of the fundamental ways of saving the country;but they also believed that many of the soldiers cannot be disbanded without giving them first a vocational training for independent living. Vocational training for the rehabilitation of disabled soldiers is a direct outcome of the present war.
Foreign Affairs
In international relations, there are three phases which need special mention. The treaties hitherto made between foreign countries and China on unequal terms have been attacked this year more ardently than at any time before.These have humiliated the Chinese people and caused the assumption of a superior air on the part of not a few foreigners. A Chinese writer has remarked, “As foreigners love us, we love them in return;but as foreigners despise us, we hate them.”These treaties have occasioned the recent development of a strong nationalistic tendency which has even found expression in educational conferences held this year. The present attack on missionary education in China, aside from religious reasons, is partly due to the indirect influence of this nation-wide opposition to unequal treaties, cancellation of which by mutual consent will benefit all parties concerned. It is believed that such a cancellation by mutual consent will not only enable China to occupy a more appropriate place in the family of nations but will make our foreign friends feel much more at home in China.
The next thing which should be considered is the restoration of diplomatic relationship with Russia. Through the cancellation of all treaties made between Old Russia and the Tsing Dynasty, Russia has won a warm friendship from the Chinese people.This was shown in the honor accorded to Lenin, on January 26, and in the parade for demanding the recognition of Russia. The good feeling entertained by the Chinese toward New Russia is not so much for Russia's Bolshevism as for Russia's stand for international justice and equality, not in words but in action. It is yet too early to forecast the influences of this new friend upon our education. However, one thing we are pretty sure of is that contact with New Russia will make Chinese education less favorable for further realization of imperialism and capitalism.
Cancellation of Boxer Indemnities
The Japanese and British Governments have already adopted a policy of using the indemnities which in their present forms are not acceptable to the Chinese people.The French indemnity is still hanging on the gold franc question.These three sources, if the methods of administration of the fund are changed, will be partly devoted to educational and cultural purposes.The American portion of indemnity, a sum of$12,545,438.67 gold, was cancelled by the American Congress on May 21, and is to be used for educational and cultural purposes. Dr. Paul Monroe's visit to this country in August resulted in the formation of a foundation called“The China Foundation for the Promotion of Education and Culture,”composed of ten Chinese and five Americans, to direct the use of this fund. The Russian portion of indemnity available for educational use amounts to about$45,000,000 gold and is entrusted to a committee of two Chinese and one Russian for its management.These funds will give stimulation to new educational and cultural activities. Many projects have been proposed. But the promotion of science and village education seems to have received the largest amount of approval.
Public Opinion in China
A word must be said about the influence of public opinion in China before closing the discussion of the action of political forces upon education. Public opinion is a more important political and social force in this country than we have usually thought. Its influence is latent but continuously present. It acts slowly but very steadily and surely. Political and social movements rise or fall according to whether they are backed up or knocked down by this invisible force. It can be shown that public opinion was one of the most decisive factors in the founding of the Republic, the defeat of the Second Revolution, the downfall of Yuen Shi-kai, the failure of the restoration of the Manchu Monarchy 2 , the fall of the Anfuit Party, and the present fall of the Chihli Party.The public opinion of China today stands for an honest and efficient government in internal affairs, and for just and friendly relations in external affairs. Nothing short of these ideals could satisfy the intelligent public opinion of the day. How to make opinion more public and more intelligent is the problem of popular education which has on its program the transformation of two hundred million illiterates into intelligent and responsible citizens in ten years' time!
China, an Agricultural Nation
More than 80 per cent of the Chinese population live in farming villages. An understanding of the conditions of the farmer is therefore necessary to an appreciation of the economic and educational problems involved. The Chinese farmers are contented and conservative people. They have contributed to the stability and persistence of Chinese civilization. In spite of all difficulties they have been very successful in growing food and in maintaining fertility of the soil. Small farms which produce barely enough for the support of their families prevail all over the country. In the absence of any rural credit system the best the farmer can do when in need of financial assistance is to pawn his personal effects. The interest reaches as high a rate as 36 per cent per annum. Other factors which handicap our farmers are many, but the more important are poor transportation facilities, absence of cooperative buying and selling, lack of rudimentary knowledge of the written language which is the key to the many new knowledges needed for the improvement of farming, and the lack of sanitary control which is undermining the health of the farmers and of their children.These facts call forth the economic and educational attack of the village problem. A village education effective enough to regenerate the social and economic life of the farmers is considered the most important issue of the day. Hand in hand with village education, the conditions of the farmers have stimulated higher agricultural education, which in time will help the farmers in scientific farming.
Industrial Development and the Labor Problem
In spite of this dominant agricultural influence, new industries have gradually and steadily sprung up and are rapidly increasing in extent and influence. There are now more than 100 flour mills and 70 oil mills in operation. Cement is being manufactured in Shanghai and Nanking, and very soon Shantung, Honan, and Manchuria 3 will enter this field. We now refine our own sugar and salt, wash with home-made soap, light with home-made matches. More than two hundred cities are now lighted with electricity. There are more than a dozen prosperous companies owned and operated by the Chinese with an aggregate capital of sixty million dollars and a capacity of producing eight million of the fourteen million tons produced by all the modern mines in China.This roughly represents an increase of 400 per cent in the space of thirteen years. 4 During 1918-1919 the cotton industry in China suddenly rose into prominence;after 1921 it began to decline. The total number of spindles in 1924 was 2,160,406 as against 2,221,486 in 1923. 5 While Chinese spindles decreased from 64 per cent in 1923 to 56 per cent in 1924, the Japanese spindles in China increased from 25 per cent to 34 per cent in a year's time. However, the number of looms is on the increase;7,817 were in operation in 1923, while in 1924 the number rose to 9,481. These figures represent pre-war conditions;the present war must have seriously checked the natural growth of industries.
Along with the development of industries there comes the problem of labor and class wars.“Hundreds of labor unions of one description or another have sprung up with Canton as the most active centre. Strikes have kept pace with the growth of labor organization.Though poorly led and at times exploited by would-be labor leaders, the workers have had a taste of their own strength….The workers are now becoming conscious of their misery, their rights, and their power.” 6 Especially has the labor of women and children in China been the least protected and worst exploited. Most of the laborers are illiterates.
Such being the industrial conditions that are found in China today, the educators are confronted with problems of bringing the human element into industrialism, cultivating a right attitude toward labor as well as capital, making industries capable of meeting the needs of the nation and the world with a minimum sacrifice of the higher life. Education and legislation must join hands in securing the fullest benefit from industrialism and in reducing to the lowest limit the calamities that have accompanied the introduction of industrialism in the West.
Commercial Development
“In spite of political disturbances, foreign trade has advanced steadily every year during the past twenty years, each succeeding year's return being in advance of its predecessor.” 7 “The foreign trade of China in 1923 was at HK. Tls.1,676,320,303, which represents an increase of HK. Tls.76,378,720 over the preceding year's total.The value of imports declined by about twenty-two million taels, but exports increased by nearly one hundred million taels.” 8 Much allowance should be made for price fluctuations. Our tea and silk trade with America has declined, partly owing to our neglect to improve the quality to conform with American standards, and partly due to the severe competition of Japan. These failures have stimulated scientific studies in sericulture and tea manufacturing.The increase in private endowment funds for educational purposes during recent years can be explained partly by the steady increase in commercial prosperity. This year business has been greatly disturbed on account of the war, and has deprived education of much of its potential support from the commercial world. As Mr. Arnold says,“When China has the same per capita foreign trade as Australia in its aggregate, it will amount to about$60,000,000,000 instead of its present$1,000,000,000.”A proper system of commercial education hand in hand with the improvements in agriculture and industry must be relied upon to make China's trade sixty times the present size.
Flood and Famine
Other forces which visit China at intervals of time are flood and famine. The floods that occurred in July and August of this year, notably in Chihli, Hunan, Kiangsi, and in the far South have been a terrible calamity. It is not possible to obtain figures of the total loss. In Kalgan, Hunan, and Fukien alone, the estimates of damages amount to$45,000,000 gold. According to the report of the International Famine Relief Commission, it would take at least ten million dollars gold in order to relieve the ten million people who have been affected by this disaster.The direct effects of this flood are:first, the call upon all possible financial resources for relief work, leaving practically no room for new educational activities; second, the need for a systematic program of reforestation together with hydraulic engineering works is widely recognized;and the third, the use of the relief fund for preventive work through a system of practical education is insisted upon.The promoters of popular education have also tried to take this opportunity to educate the illiterate refugees during the leisure hours.
The Status of Communications
Education as a general rule follows improvements in communication. The extent of new education corresponds very closely to the extent of railway and steamship communication. Although China is larger in area than the United States, Mexico, and Central America combined, and has four times the population of the United States, she has less than 7,000 miles of railways compared to 265,000 miles in the United States.As a consequence six sevenths of China's population is concentrated in about one third of its territory. Railways will open up nearly 2,000,000 square miles now unsettled and undeveloped.They will assist in a better distribution of the population, in the unification of the country, and in the eradication of brigandage and famine. Railways and good roads are indispensable to the spread of education, for universal education is dependent upon universal communication.
The Chinese Renaissance
Of all the forces that are now acting upon Chinese education, the Chinese Renaissance has exerted the most profound influence. The movement began in 1917 as a“Literary Revolution”when Dr. Hu Suh and Mr. Chan Tu-siu, the leaders of the movement, declared that the classical language had outlived its usefulness and that Pei hua , the spoken language, was its legitimate heir. As the Pei hua is the most widely spoken language in the country, the culmination of over twenty centuries of linguistic evolution, and the language in which the nation's most favored literatures were produced, the Literary Revolution met with astonishing success. In spite of strong opposition on the part of conservative scholars, the younger generation received it with overwhelming joy.This rediscovery of a living language for Chinese has enabled China to produce new literatures fitted for the new age, revolutionized elementary school reading materials as well as methods of teaching them, and made it possible for the popular education movement to go on with its program of eliminating illiteracy.
The second phase of the Renaissance has to do with higher education. During the later years of the movement scholars have been seeking to apply the modern scientific methods of research to the work of systematizing the old learning of China. In the words of Dr. Hu, this“systematization of the national heritage is a revival or rebirth of that spirit of criticism and research which animated the works of the Han Hsueh scholars of the last three centuries.”
But the influence of the Renaissance is wider than this. It is a movement through which“all traditional values are judged from a new standpoint and with new standards. Tradition is often thrown overboard, authority is cast aside, old beliefs are being undermined.”This explains why the Renaissance movement is so permeating and far-reaching and its effects are spreading over the whole fabric of national life.
Visits of World Scholars
Since 1918, a number of eminent scholars like John Dewey, Bertrand Russell, Paul Monroe, Von Driesch 9 , Rabindranath Tagore, and others have visited this country. All of them, through their lectures and contact with our intellectual leaders and students, have exerted much influence upon Chinese thought and life. Special mention should be made of Dr. Dewey's and Dr. Monroe's visits because of their unique significance for the reconstruction of Chinese education. Besides his influence upon advanced students, Dr. Dewey's pragmatic philosophy of education has been one of the guiding principles in the reforms of our elementary education. Since his visit a number of experiments have been conducted in elementary education. His philosophy has stimulated several students of education to work out techniques and methods for its realization. Education as an application instead of acquisition of ideas has been emphasized by Dr. Monroe. His recommendations, resulting from careful investigations in 1921, have aroused serious deliberation on various educational problems and stimulated especially reforms in secondary education and science teaching.
The Critical Attitude of Chinese Schoolmen
So far we have only mentioned the more important forces and the effects which they have exerted upon Chinese education. These are sufficient to show that in China problems are many and perplexing. Solutions are sought in her own past civilization as well as in contemporary examples.Thus China has tried to learn from one country after another, until today she has quite a cosmopolitan group of tutors from which to select. Japan, Germany, America, England, the Philippines, India, and Russia are the more important countries whose educational theories and practices have had influence upon Chinese education. China has in the past followed her teachers rather blindly but as yet no one has succeeded in offering her a satisfactory solution for her problems. Each is helpful to her in some ways but wholesale adoption of any one system has led her astray. At first she sacrificed everything old for the new. Gradually she came to a realization that the old is not necessarily bad and the new is not necessarily good. Thus our schoolmen have become much more critical than in former years.Their reaction now toward new theories and practices is no longer imitative adoption, but questioning, examination, experimentation, and selection.The logical outcome of this attitude tends to work out an education that is best fitted for the need of New China by assimilating what is best in the old and the new, both at home and in other countries. Experiences in the past and in the outside world must be assimilated before they can contribute to the nation's vitality and well-being.The critical and experimental attitude is creative. It is only with such an attitude that a real Chinese education adapted to Chinese life is possible. Such a creation has begun.