Reading in a single sitting 一口气读完这段历史

The Mexican-American War (or Mexican War) was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its territory despite the 1836 Texas Revolution.

The Mexican-American War was the first major conflict driven by the idea of "Manifest Destiny" （昭昭天命）; the belief that America had a God-given right, or destiny, to expand the country' s borders from "sea to shining sea". This belief would eventually cause a great deal of suffering for many Mexicans, Native Americans and United States citizens. Following the earlier Texas War of Independence from Mexico, tensions between the two largest independent nations on the North American continent grew as Texas eventually became a U.S. state. Disputes over the border lines sparked military confrontation , helped by the fact that President Polk（波尔克）eagerly sought a war in order to seize large tracts of land from Mexico.

American forces invaded and conquered New Mexico, California, and parts of what is currently northern Mexico; meanwhile, the American Navy conducted a blockade, and took several garrisons on the Pacific coast of Mexico-largely what is now California, but also farther south. Another American army captured Mexico City, which forced Mexico to agree to the sale of its northern territories to the U.S.

American territorial expansion to the Pacific coast was the goal of President James K.Polk, the leader of the Democratic Party. However, the war was highly controversial in the U.S., with the Whig Party（辉格党）and anti-slavery elements strongly opposed. Heavy American casualties and high monetary cost were also criticized. The major consequence of the war was the forced Mexican Cession of the territories of Alta California and New Mexico to the U.S. in exchange for $18 million. In addition, the United States forgave debt owed by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. Mexico accepted the Rio Grande（格兰德河）as its national border, and the loss of Texas. Meanwhile gold was discovered in California, which immediately became an international magnet for the California Gold Rush. The political aftermath of the war raised the slavery issue in the U.S., leading to intense debates that pointed to civil war; the Compromise of 1850 provided a brief respite.

In the U.S., the conflict is sometimes referred to as the Mexican War or the U.S.-Mexican War. Outnumbered militarily and with many of its large cities occupied, Mexico could not defend itself and was also faced with internal divisions. It had little choice but to make peace on any terms. February 2, 1848, The Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo（瓜达卢佩-伊达尔戈条约）was signed, later to be ratified by both the U.S. and Mexican Congresses. The treaty called for the annexation of the northern portions of Mexico to the United States. In return, the U.S. agreed to pay $15 million to Mexico as compensation for the seized territory. The bravery of the individual Mexican soldier goes a long way in explaining the difficulty the U.S. had in prosecuting the war. Mexican military leadership was often lacking, at least when compared to the American leadership. And in many of the battles, the superior cannon of the U.S. artillery divisions and the innovative tactics of their officers turned the tide against the Mexicans. The war cost the United States over $100 million, and ended the lives of 13, 780 U.S. military personnel. America had defeated its weaker and somewhat disorganized southern neighbor, but not without paying a terrible price.

Mexican territory, prior to the secession of Texas, comprised almost 1, 700, 000 sq mi (4, 400, 000 km 2 ), which was reduced to just under 800, 000 by 1848. Another 32, 000 were sold to the U.S. in the Gadsden Purchase（加兹登购买地）of 1853, for a total reduction of more than 55%, or 900, 000 square miles. The annexed territories, comparable in size to Western Europe, were essentially unsettled, containing about 1, 000 Mexican families in Alta California and 7, 000 in Nuevo México, as well as large Native American nations such as the Navajo, Hopi, and dozens of others. A few relocated further south in Mexico; the great majority remained in the U.S. Descendants of these Mexican families have risen to prominence in American life, such as United States Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar, and his brother, U.S.Rep. John Salazar, both from Colorado（科罗拉多）.

你知道美国西部有一大部分的土地本来都是属于墨西哥的吗？在1848年的2月2日，美国与墨西哥官员在墨西哥市开会，签署了瓜达卢佩-伊达戈条约。这项协定使持续近两年的墨西哥战争得以结束，并且让美国增加了525000平方英里原属于墨西哥的领土，使美国西部的领土能够扩展到太平洋沿岸。美国新的领土范围包括了现在的亚利桑纳、加州、科罗拉多西部、内华达、新墨西哥、德州，以及犹他州。这项条约与1853年的哥斯登购买案，让美国的领土范围扩增为48个州。

Key Words in History 历史关键词

1. Manifest Destiny 昭昭天命

Manifest Destiny was the 19th century American belief that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent, from the Atlantic Seaboard to the Pacific Ocean. It was used by Democrats in the 1840s to justify the war with Mexico; the concept was denounced by Whigs, and fell into disuse after the mid-19th century.

Advocates of Manifest Destiny believed that expansion was not only wise but that it was readily apparent (manifest) and inexorable (destiny).

The belief in an American mission to promote and defend democracy throughout the world, as expounded by Abraham Lincoln and Woodrow Wilson, continues to have an influence on American political ideology.

2. The Lone Star Repuilc 孤星共和国

The Republic of Texas also known as The Lone Star Repuilc was an independent nation in North America, bordering the United States and Mexico, that existed from 1836 to 1846.

Formed as a break-away republic from Mexico by the Texas Revolution, the state claimed borders that encompassed an area that included all of the present U.S. state of Texas, as well as parts of present-day New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming based upon the Treaties of Velasco between the newly created Texas Republic and Mexico. The eastern boundary with the United States was defined by the Adams-Onís Treaty between the United States and Spain, in 1819. Its southern and western-most boundary with Mexico was under dispute throughout the existence of the Republic, with Texas claiming that the boundary was the Rio Grande, and Mexico claiming the Nueces River as the boundary. This dispute would later become a trigger for the Mexican-American War, after the annexation of Texas by the United States.

3. The Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo 瓜达卢佩-伊达尔戈条约

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo in Spanish) is the peace treaty, largely dictated by the United States to the interim government of a militarily occupied Mexico City, that ended the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) on February 2, 1848. With the defeat of its army and the fall of the capital, Mexico surrendered to the United States and entered into negotiations to end the war.

4. Gadsden Purchase 加兹登购买地

The Gadsden Purchase known as Venta de La Mesilla, or Sale of La Mesilla, in Mexico is a 29, 670-square-mile (76, 800 km) region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico that was purchased by the United States in a treaty signed by James Gadsden, the American ambassador to Mexico at the time, on December 30, 1853. It was then ratified, with changes, by the U.S.Senate on April 25, 1854 and signed by President Franklin Pierce, with final approval action taken by Mexico on June 8, 1854. The purchase was the last major territorial acquisition in the contiguous United States, adding an area the size of Scotland to the United States.

Background Knowledge 背景知识补充

19世纪40年代的美国大陆扩张和西进运动高潮时期，扩张主义理论“昭昭天命”论是美国对墨西哥发动战争的理论依据。1845年12月2日，美国总统波尔克在致国会的年度咨文中提出了对门罗主义的扩张主义解释。同年12月27日，《纽约晨报》刊登扩张主义者奥沙利文的文章，称：“上帝赋于我们在整个大陆发展的权利是昭昭天命”（弗雷得里克·默克：《昭昭天命与美国历史上的使命——一个重新解释》）。1846年1月3日，众议员罗伯特·温思罗普在国会提出：“我们昭昭天命的权利是扩展到整个大陆”（理查德·莫理斯编：《美国历史百科全书》）。

美国企图夺取加利福尼亚地区和太平洋出海口的野心由来已久。1835年，杰克逊总统曾试图以55万美元的代价购得旧金山港口及其以北地区。1845年11月，波尔克总统以墨应归还美300万美元债务为要挟，妄图取得新墨西哥和加利福尼亚地区。墨西哥政府拒绝了美国的无理要求。1846年1月13日，波尔克命令泰勒部队越过努埃塞斯河，占领从不属于得克萨斯的格兰德河左岸。4月25日，美墨军队在墨西哥境内发生流血冲突。5月8、9两日，美墨双方在帕洛阿尔托、雷萨卡·德·拉·帕尔马地区先后交火。5月9日晚，美国政府开会决定对墨采取战争行动。1846年5月11日，波尔克总统发表致国会咨文，要求对墨宣战。当天和次日，美国众、参两院分别通过对墨宣战决议。5月13日，波尔克发表文告，宣布美墨间“已存在战争状态”（詹姆斯·理查森编：《美国总统咨文和文件汇编》）。 luczG2u3ZzhLevQLmtk4B/cTCEReiTiAJn0rO6Awm+G/W3QMFt2AVc77YC8lbZvs